1
25
145
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/43f0db457c92f65968afd67e76679e9c.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=ZHNMMCSuXxFplTmVItA7fjAlOx7g-qY6jsG9-eo2kfC6dQ2OzqRSNtZuqKxWYzKDd3khV16pA7rwCR2ZnMvpxMuuZWvh1TZ0UUAwEIvMNCg1VvMVaISj2nw0MEcW0TO5S4b6I-KIRNg9LUBM3DUCxEJT1tEBGv3QjJJE1v3pkeDMR0Sr9LsXRGORi8G0tzpV0zYsPBspH0lOOYBUZ2DKg6QiCrgn36VP-WY%7E9%7ELWBHvRQs6mlciIbIZrKhzyVAocplq57d1kndTJNPwWXEEwsKVZTindE87I1FNOCtL%7EpCtJ0hwrPV67FvMLMBxeFF9OsMxRt-2hjz3bT0nvczpuLQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
d1079d90fdb4cac32779ffa9198ee478
PDF Text
Text
Questions
Vol.
10,
Answers
1
NO.
February
February is Black History month.
This
issue
of
1989
Questions
Answers replies to questions about schools for slaves
These answers come from Thad Tate' s The
Williamsburg.
in
Negro in Eighteenth- Century Williamsburg.
1.
Were there schools for slaves in Williamsburg?
There
is some evidence of
interest in education for
Negroes in Williamsburg as early as the 1740s.
December
22,
On
1743,
Commissary Dawson wrote to England
asking for a copy of school rules " which, with some
little alteration, will suit a Negro school in our
Metropolis,
One
when we shall have the Pleasure of seeing
established."
1750,
than
later,
in
he wrote the Bishop of London about Negro
There are three such schools in my parish,
schools, "
these
Then only a few years
I
sometimes
occasional
visit."
Whether
catechism
classes
these
or more
were
no
more
regular
instruction is a complete mystery.
It hardly seems
likely that they could have had a very long history
without
2.
attracting
wider notice.
What was the group known as Dr.
Dr.
Bray' s Associates?
Bray' s Associates were English philanthropists
from the larger groups called the Society for the
Propagation of
the Gospel.
This group expended a part
of its missionary effort " amongst the Poorer sort of
people,
as
also among
the
Blacks and Native
Indians."
In the 1760s Dr. Bray' s Associates decided that
Williamsburg was worth a try as the location of one of
its schools for blacks.
3.
Who were the trustees of the Williamsburg school?
Benjamin Franklin, who in January 1760 took his place
as
a
newly
elected
member
of
the Associates,
recommended William Hunter ( Williamsburg postmaster
and printer
of
the Virginia
Gazette)
and
Thomas Dawson
president of William and Mary and rector of Bruton
Parish) as trustees for the Williamsburg school.
were
approved.
school,
Hunter and Dawson had
to
find a teacher and a place for it to meet,
supervise its day -to -day operation.
Dawson died just as
undertook
most
of
the
the
the establishment of
Since
school opened,
responsibilities
the
Both
organize the
and
Thomas
Hunter
connected with
school.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
N°
�4.
When did the Bray School open?
The Williamsburg school began to operate on Michaelmas
September
5.
How
large
children
At
the
29),
was
1760.
the
enrollment?
At what age
did
attend?
request
Nicholas,
of
the Associates,
Robert
Carter
Treasurer of the Colony of Virginia,
raised
the enrollment from twenty -four to thirty, and it
remained
close
to
or
a
little
above
that
figure
Most pupils
the duration of the school.
eight years old, a few as young as three,
two
6.
as
old
as
nine
and
were
six
to
and one or
ten.
How many teachers did the school employ?
Hunter
engaged
as
a
teacher
Mrs.
Ann
Wager,
be the only instructor the school ever had.
death the
7.
for
school
closed
What were the course of
employed
In
1763
at
the
in
who
was
to
Upon her
1774.
study and methods of
teaching
school?
Nicholas
and
Hunter' s
successor
William Yates
drew up rules for the guidance of the schoolmistress.
Mrs. Wager was to take only scholars approved by the
trustees,
open
winter and
six
the
in
school at seven o' clock in the
the summer,
enforce regular
and keep her pupils " diligently to their
A number of
Business during the Hours of Schooling."
the
rules governed religious instruction and worship:
attendance,
students were
to learn to read
the Bible,
the
instructor was to catechize them according to the
doctrines of the Church of England, and the teacher
was to take the children to church regularly as well
The teacher was
as conduct prayers in the school.
also expected to insist upon personal cleanliness,
neatness of dress,
and moral behavior from the
Finally, she was to " teach her Scholars the
true Spelling of Names, make them mind their Stops
possibly punctuation] and endeavour to bring them to
While the heaviest
pronounce and read distinctly."
students.
emphasis was on religion, it is still clear that the
intention was to provide a reasonable amount of formal
academic training for the youngsters.
�8.
Where was
the Bray
From 1763
to
1765
School
located?
the Associates
engaged
a house
owned
by Dudley Digges ( possibly located on the northeast
It proved too
corner of Henry and Ireland streets).
and
small,
in
the
latter part
of
to a house owned by John Blair,
until
9.
it
closed
in
What kinds
of
attend
1765
the
school
1774.
school?
the
masters
allowed
their
slave
children to
The thirty or so Williamsburg
slaveowners who
enrolled
represented
section
Robert
slaves
of
in
the
political
Carter
school
leaders
like
John
Nicholas,
and
John
shopkeepers,
craftsmen,
and
Hugh Orr,
a
Randolph
and
Alexander Craig,
and Jane
The college also enrolled two of its
in 1769.
Three of the children in 1762 and
were
of
like
Vobe.
1769
cross
Blair,
innkeepers
Anthony Hay,
10.
moved
where it remained
slaves
two in
free.
How successful was
the Williamsburg
school?
In Virginia educational opportunities for slaves were
all but nonexistent.
Dr. Bray' s Associates' school in
Williamsburg stands out as a notable establishment for
the
colonial
school
least
was
a
period.
not
quite
moderate
Although
fifteen
success.
the
years,
Classes
entire
life
of
the
it was at the very
operated
at
capacity even in the face of too brief an attendance
from most of the scholars.
Masters were willing to
have some of their young slaves educated at the school
What
perhaps mostly because it was a cheap nursery).
may be most
significant of
all
is the
indisputable
fact that some of the scholars were learning to read
and
write,
Nicholas
adequate
nothing
slaves'
even under relatively adverse conditions.
described those children who remained for an
time
as
able "
to read
pretty well."
If
these young scholars had proved the
capacity for education.
else,
�Questions
This
is
a
December
reprint
of
Answers
the popular " rumor"
issue
from
Because many of these myths still have not
1982.
been dismissed ( dismythed ?),
we
thought
you
would
appreciate reading it again.
1.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT .
People were shorter in the eighteenth century.
The
short
antique beds
prove
it.
People were not significantly shorter in the
eighteenth
Records
century.
indicate
that
soldiers
white males)
during the Revolution averaged only . 63
S.
Army recruits in 1957 and
The antique beds are actually about six feet
inches
shorter than U.
1958.
long,
the
same
as
modern
standard -size
beds.
For
example, a random sample of beds in our exhibition
buildings shows that none is shorter than 74" (
6' 2 "),
most are several inches longer than that, and some are
as long as
80 1/ 2 ".
high ceilings
2.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
and
They appear shorter because of
tall
bedsteads.
THAT . . .
For sanitary reasons,
a bit of
the
stem was
broken off pipes before they were reused.
Archaeologists find many pipestem fragments because
pipes are easily broken.
smokers broke off
mouthpiece.
the
end
Furthermore,
There is no evidence that
of the stem to make a clean
eighteenth- century people
weren' t aware of germs anyway.
3.
RUMOR
HAS
IT THAT . . .
Williamsburg has so many one and one -half
houses because there was a tax on two -story houses.
There were no taxes on buildings during the colonial
period,
so
this
does
not
explain
the prevalence
story- and -a - half houses in Williamsburg.
These
of
simply
follow the pattern of the vast majority of houses in
colonial
Virginia.
They are single -story houses with
finished attics for additional living space.
4.
RUMOR
HAS
IT THAT .
Glazed headers tell us that a building dates from
the early eighteenth century because after 1750 there
Hardwoods were
was a law against burning hardwoods.
required to make a fire hot enough to glaze brick.
There was no colonial Virginia law against burning
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�hardwoods.
5.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
Mirrors came
larger pieces
in two pieces because a tax was placed on
of
glass.
The old story about a tax on large pieces of glass appears
be completely without foundation.
Harold
Gill
has
to
determined
that no such law existed in Virginia.
In England every
attempt was made to encourage manufacturing in the eighteenth
Also,
century, not to hamper it.
if one compares very large,
two -piece looking glasses with smaller examples of the same
form, the larger mirror will often have a single unit
containing more
surfaces of the
6.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
surface area than
smaller ones.
that
of
the
combined
THAT . . .
A French traveler remarked that
in bad weather,
Duke of
Gloucester street was a mile long and a mile deep.
In Jane Carson' s We Were There, Descriptions of Williamsburg,
1699 - 1859,
none of the travelers described Duke of Gloucester
Street ( or the main street) as a mile long and a mile deep.
Several of them wrote of the unpaved main street that it was
deep with sand and aggravating in summer because of the dust,
sand,
and heat;
one described
the main street as "
sloppy"
during a rainy period.
7.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT .
Thomas Jefferson jogged up and down Duke of Gloucester
Street.
Jefferson clearly believed that exercise was beneficial
health.
In letters
recommended
others
on
of
it highly. "
he told
exercise,"
that
character
running
recommended
Walking is the best possible
Carr. "
Games
played with
the
ball
and
nature,
on
were "
to
to his wife and to Peter Carr he
the
too
that
are too violent for the body and stamp
mind."
Whether he felt that " jogging" or
violent,"
Carr walk
we don' t know.
Jefferson
in the afternoons and said that
half an hour' s walk in the morning was also beneficial.
One
might well have seen Jefferson walking for exercise in
Williamsburg when he was a student here and later in his
various governmental capacities.
But " jogging up and down the
Duke " -- probably
8.
RUMOR HAS
not.
IT THAT . . .
Thomas Jefferson wrote that Palace
with
catalpa
green was
On his drawing of the Palace ( circa 1779),
noted
planted
trees.
the " rows
of
trees
100f.
apart"
on
Thomas
Palace
Jefferson
Street.
He
did not mention the type of tree.
These were doubtless the
trees that General de Lauberdiere mentioned in his journal
July 1782),
in which he noted the " very fine palace, built at
�the extremity of a handsome
Lauberdiere' s
were
9.
is
the
first
street planted with catalpas."
statement
we
have
that
the
De
trees
catalpas.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
Pigs were free to roam the streets of Williamsburg.
By law pigs were penned
to prevent their escaping
from the
small farms into the streets of Williamsburg.
10.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
Town criers announced
the news
to Williamsburg residents.
1772,
Purdie and Dixon' s Virginia Gazette for July 16,
reported that the Williamsburg Court of Common Hall had
enacted a by -law
for constituting a WATCH,
to
consist
of
four
sober
and
discreet People, who are to patrol the Streets of the
from ten o' Clock every Night till Daylight the next
City
Morning, to cry the Hours, and use their best Endeavours
to preserve Peace and good Order, by apprehending and
bringing to Justice all disorderly People, Slaves, as well
as
others.
The watchmen were essentially policemen and firemen and only
incidentally " criers"
of
the
hours.
associated with early New England,
11.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
The
term " town
not colonial
crier"
is
Virginia.
THAT . . .
George Washington refused to marry Martha until she let
her
hair grow longer.
There
is
no evidence
Martha Custis
that George Washington " refused"
for any reason,
and meaningless
reason as
the
let
alone
length of
for
such
her hair.
a
to marry
frivolous
From
what
we know of Washington such an action would have been totally
out oft/
character.
12.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . .
Cobblestones were used
Williamsburg.
There
is
no
evidence
to
line
the streets of
that cobblestones
lined
the
streets of
Williamsburg.
13.
RUMOR
HAS
H"
heaven
IT
THAT . . .
panels in doors had a religious significance,
and
meaning
hell.
Architectural historian Mark
R.
Wenger has
found no
eighteenth- century source indicating religious significance in
paneled doors -- neither " H"
and
Bible."
for heaven and hell
nor the " cross
The configuration of door joinery was determined
by traditional methods of assembling paneled elements:
�A.
A.
1
I
rails) .
rails) .
B.
B.
to
n
PanelsPanels areare enclosedenclosed byby aa frameframe
composedcomposed ofof verticalvertical members members
stiles)
stiles)
andand horizontalhorizontal membersmembers
OnOn thethe outerouter edgesedges ofof aa paneled paneled
elementelement (
(
entireentire
whetherwhether
wall)
wall)
aa doordoor oror anan
thethe outerouter stilesstiles
runrun
allall thethe wayway through.
through.
1
C.
C.
1
WithinWithin thesethese outerouter stiles,
stiles,
areare
D.
D.
railsrails
continuous.
continuous.
InnerInner stilesstiles areare thereforetherefore brokenbroken
byby thethe rails.
rails.
AA sixsix - panelpanel doordoor isis aa goodgood example example ofof this.
this.
ItIt isis best,
best,
notnot toto attributeattribute doordoor panelpanel configurationsconfigurations toto religiousreligious
then,
then,
symbolism.
symbolism.
14.
14.
RUMORRUMOR HASHAS
ITIT THATTHAT . . .
...
AA buttonbutton inin thethe newelnewel postpost indicatedindicated thatthat thethe househouse waswas
paidpaid
for.
for.
AsAs inin thethe precedingpreceding case,case, thethe traditiontradition concerningconcerning anan ivoryivory
buttonbutton inin thethe newelnewel postpost appearsappears toto havehave nono basisbasis inin
historicalhistorical documents.documents.
toto
bebe
true.
true.
confirmation,
confirmation,
However,
However,
OccasionallyOccasionally suchsuch traditionstraditions areare proven"
proven"
inin thethe absenceabsence ofof thisthis sortsort ofof
wewe shouldshould avoidavoid makingmaking traditionaltraditional explanationsexplanations
partpart ofof ourour interpretation.
interpretation.
Let'Let' ss trytry toto stickstick withwith whatwhat wewe
cancan demonstrate demonstrate oror atat leastleast inferinfer fromfrom historicalhistorical documents.documents.
15.
15.
RUMORRUMOR HASHAS
ITIT THATTHAT .
.
AA manman couldcould legallylegally beatbeat hishis wifewife withwith aa stickstick ifif itit waswas
notnot biggerbigger thanthan hishis thumb.thumb.
NoNo lawlaw toto thisthis effecteffect existedexisted inin colonialcolonial Virginia.
Virginia.
CompletelyCompletely false.
false.
16.
16.
RUMORRUMOR HASHAS
ankles.
ankles.
ITIT THATTHAT . . .
...
AA womanwoman couldcould bebe putput inin thethe pillorypillory forfor showingshowing herher
ThereThere isis nono evidenceevidence whatsoeverwhatsoever forfor this.
this.
ManyMany illustrationsillustrations
datingdating fromfrom thethe colonialcolonial periodperiod showshow workingworking womenwomen wearingwearing
theirtheir hemshems atat ankleankle lengthlength oror above.above.
17.
17.
RUMORRUMOR
HASHAS
TheThe "
"
ITIT THATTHAT .
.
refusalrefusal
room"
room"
atat Carter'Carter' ss
GroveGrove
isis
soso calledcalled becausebecause
itit waswas therethere thatthat MaryMary CaryCary refusedrefused GeorgeGeorge Washington'Washington' ss
proposalproposal ofof marriage,
marriage, asas diddid RebeccaRebecca BurwellBurwell whenwhen ThomasThomas
JeffersonJefferson proposed proposed marriage.
marriage.
GeorgeGeorge WashingtonWashington waswas nevernever enamoredenamored ofof MaryMary Cary.Cary.
Rather,
Rather,
�his
of
infatuation was with her sister Sally Cary Fairfax,
George
continued
for
seven
or
eight
Although
years.
friend
and
neighbor.
Washington
she
to have been genuinely in love with Sally,
his
wife
It began in the early 1750s and
William Fairfax.
seems
was married
to
Though they sometimes corresponded,
circumstances precluded any proposal of marriage in the socalled "
refusal
room"
at
Carter' s
Grove
Washingtons and Fairfaxes remained
or
anywhere
friends
The
else.
for many years.
Jefferson had a schoolboy infatuation for Rebecca Burwell of
Fairfield,
Although he
Gloucester County.
contemplated marrying Rebecca,
the " refusal
room"
or
seems
to
have
he never actually proposed in
He
elsewhere.
indicated
at one
time
that a proposal might be in the offing, but that he would ask
her
to
wait
In
traveled abroad.
Somehow this
Jacquelin Ambler.
for marriage
meantime
Rebecca
married
youthful
romance
has
until
he
had
overshadowed Jefferson' s
marriage to
which Dumas
Martha Wayles Skelton on New Year' s Day 1772,
Malone
18.
RUMOR
says " ushered in
HAS
IT
the
the happiest period of
his life."
THAT .
There was a law in Williamsburg that stated sheets in the
taverns had to be changed once every two months.
The law required eighteenth- century tavern keepers to furnish
good, wholesome, and cleanly lodging and diet for
travellers,"
but
there was no
specific
reference
sheets.
Conditions varied in taverns as
motels.
Clean
than
rule
the
sheets
if
seem
to have been
travelers'
accounts
the
are
to changing
in today' s hotels
exception
One
accurate.
and
rather
person
even went so far as to carry his own sheets with him.
inventories of
However,
list
more
sheets
available
19.
the better taverns
than beds,
at
those
RUMOR
IT
most
of
in Williamsburg
linen was
the
probably
THAT . .
HAS
taverns
so clean
time.
People did not bathe or change their clothes very often in
the eighteenth century.
People rarely record such personal and routine information
about themselves,
so there is no way to answer such questions
There
adequately:
Virginians
is
no
did not bathe
reason
to
and change
think
that most
clothes
colonial
regularly.
William Byrd II in his History of the Dividing Line indicates
on occasion that he was
relieved to be
several
the
days'
newspaper
travel
ads,
laundries,
and
soaps,
in
other
able to bathe
sources
refer
to
outbuildings
and laundering equipment.
The
textiles tells us that methods of " dry cleaning"
silks and other fancy fabrics.
20.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
used
curator
was
used while
the
were used on
in each garden in Williamsburg
other was
as
of
THAT . . .
There are two necessaries
because one
after
Inventories,
wilderness.
cleaned.
Many Williamsburg house lots had only one necessary
�house and some had none.
Even at Westover plantation the
evidence is conclusive that there was only one necessary
house.
21.
No
RUMOR HAS
evidence points
to
a"
spare"
house.
IT THAT .
Women were not allowed to come in the front door of an
eighteenth- century
tavern.
First of all, women were not usually tavern customers,
although there were instances of them sleeping there of
necessity when traveling, or dining at taverns with family or
friends, or attending balls at taverns.
Furthermore, there is
no evidence that when an eighteenth- century woman entered a
tavern she had to use a back or side door.
It is likely that
most women would not have wanted to be in a boisterous
barroom.
The custom of a separate ladies' entrance or waiting
room appears to be a nineteenth -century one.
Today some
English pubs still have a public bar and a quieter lounge bar.
Quite recently women customers have begun frequenting public
bars as well as lounge bars, where women felt more welcome in
the
22.
past.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
The pineapple became a symbol of hospitality because it
resembles
the
pinecone,
a symbol of hospitality to the Greeks.
The research staff checked several reference books on symbols
and found nothing about the Greeks'
symbol of hospitality.
using the pinecone as a
To them it was a fertility symbol.
The traditional explanation for the pineapple' s use as a
symbol of hospitality is that during the seventeenth and
eighteenth
centuries when
the
fruit was
so
exotic
and rare,
it
was a mark of the host' s special esteem for his guest to serve
pineapple.
23.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . .
Publick Times was when the burgesses were in session.
To the colonists Publick Times meant only that the General
Court or Court of Oyer and Terminer was in session.
Publick
Times were in April and October ( when the General Court met)
and again in June and December ( sessions of Oyer and
Terminer).
The Meeting of Merchants usually coincided with
court dates.
sometimes
The General Assembly met for long periods- -
months
at
a
time.
Thus,
the
House of
Burgesses were
sometimes in session during Publick Times.
24.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
Kitchens were separate from houses because this
arrangement was thought to reduce the danger of fire to the
main
house.
In 1705 Robert Beverley wrote, "
All
Drudgeries of Cookery,
Daries,
Washing,
Their [ Virginians']
etc.
are perform' d
in
�a
offices detacht from the Dwelling Houses,
are kept
more cool
which by this means
and Sweet."
Current scholarship on
detached kitchens in the Chesapeake area emphasizes their role
in the segregation of different social groups.
Reducing the
risk of fire was not a reason for separating kitchens from the
main houses.
A balanced explanation of separate kitchens should mention a
concern for fire, but the emphasis should be on a social
factors.
The wisdom of this approach is apparent when we
consider that dozens of seventeenth -century frame houses
survive in New England where cooking was done in the house.
In Virginia,
where kitchens were separate,
not one
seventeenth -century frame house is known to exist.
25.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . .
Portrait painters in the eighteenth century had canvases
already made up with figures
their clients'
and torsos and just painted
in
heads.
The " headless body myth"
The formula -like poses
artists engendered
seems to have begun in the 1930s.
and prodigious output of
the theory that
certain
itinerant portrait painters
spent their winters preparing a supply of canvases with
painted bodies and backgrounds.
The myth has been
applied
to
both eighteenth- and nineteenth -century painters without much
evidence
to
support
it.
It probably would be erroneous to state that the technique was
never employed by artists working in eighteenth- century
America since we can only judge by the incomplete evidence
The evidence we do have consists of
available to us today.
the surviving paintings and the slim recorded documentation on
artists'
methods during those years, as in the cases of
Jeremiah Theus in Charleston from about 1740 to 1774, and
Charles Willson Peale whose early career in the mid -Atlantic
colonies
is well known.
No mention of
such a practice
is
made
in any references to these two painters or their work,
although we do learn
that
several
sittings
were required for completing a likeness.
with the
subject
Furthermore,
no
large -scale ( meaning oil on canvas and near life size)
headless likenesses by eighteenth- century portraitists in
America
have been discovered.
Finally,
scholars have not been able to detect any physical
evidence in existing paintings that bodies were painted well
in advance of
the heads.
Such physical
evidence might
include
overlapping paint layers along the neck and chin areas as well
as
along
the circumference of
the head where it joins
the
background.
On a slightly different but related subject, new research
indicates that American portrait painters often showed exactly
the same clothing,
paintings.
objects,
and
poses
used
in
English
This does not mean that American painters only
�9
filled in the faces of their subjects - -they painted
the whole
figure and entire background but sometimes borrowed designs
from other artists.
�Questions
Vol.
10,
June
3
No.
Answers
1989
This issue of Questions and Answers explains in some
detail a number of new programs our visitor' s can expect
to
see
this
summer.
Military Encampment
to
The
Brickyard
mK
K
ro
0
5
Tailoring
Children' s
m-
Programs
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�MILITARY
The
at
the
more
themes
Magazine,
and
topics
Guardhouse,
effectively by moving
military
for
encampment (
For
several
ENCAMPMENT
identified for
and
Magazine
the
interpretation
can
yard
be
the outdoor activities
the nine
the
years,
busiest
desire
months
to
presented
to a separate
of
the
interpret
year).
the
role
of
the Magazine as a military warehouse and the desire to interpret
military life and focus on the Revolution has caused tension in
the
interpretation.
life,
have
etc.
Important
been
aspects
demonstrated
and
of
weapons,
interpreted
tactics,
in
the
camp
Magazine
yard because these subjects were not being addressed anywhere
else.
Unfortunately, many of these activities never took place
at the Magazine in the period.
We have successfully presented
the subjects,
but in so doing, we have created a scene that never
existed.
During the years
1775
town
itself.
Historic
aid
of
Developing
Area
some
would
Fife
interpretation
Others
the Magazine
broader
issues
inaccuracies
without
of
the
will
be
support
House
on
Nicholson
marquee
Flanking
company
will
details
and
through
an
the
expand
there
the
location.
etc.
removed
would
focus
on
site.
the
Of
encampment
those
to
be
Street.
sites
A
the
is
open,
At
as
the
the
two
troops. (
layout
of
The camp will be
on
of
the
lot
best
behind
fifteen
or
the
accessibility,
the head of
officers'
be
examined,
visitor
wooded
total
size camp.
for
entrance
to
appropriate
cooking fires,
level ground,
seems
serve
tents
the
need to explain away the historic
When
the street will
twelve " A"
were
in
closed.
space,
facilities
believable
a
of
continue
more
interpretation
present
Encampment:
combination
to
in a
tents,
the
the
Guardhouse:
Guardhouse
life
fencing,
area,
troops
quartered
size) camp within the
staff,
with the seasonal
Magazine
members,
military
With the
from
the
Drum
were
small ( company
allow
and
of
a
numerous
to 1781,
camped in the Williamsburg area.
tents
the
will
See attached
site.)
make
a
the company street,
headquarters
tent.
wall
tents
sketch
for
lieutenants'
and
Tayloe
and
additional
fenced and access will be controlled
Nicholson
Street.
Key topics for interpreters introducing visitors to the
site
will
be:
During the Revolutionary War,
around Williamsburg because,
military center of
Virginia.
troops camped in and
as
the
capital,
it
was
the
�Troops
camped here
for
a
number of reasons:
recruiting
equipping and training
and assembling new units;.
recruits;
gathering units for specific campaigns; and
supplying the troops to guard the public buildings.
Ongoing interpretive activities and demonstrations will
casting musket balls, making
cleaning,
cooking,
include:
musket
washing clothes,
cartridges,
field
music,
itself,
drum repair,
posting
cannon firing,
specific topics
a
times events
parade
of
will
uniforms,
first person
revelry,
etc.
from the Magazine,
Hands - on"
include:
in depth
cannon,
activities
will
include:
uniforms
arms,
in the spring,
was
cannon
is
or
will
of
furnished
include:
different
The
units,
Magazine
tent
practice
will
operate
drill
and
dry firing
bell
interiors,
targets.
seven days
a
week
summer and fall and five days a week in the winter
The encampment will be open 10: 00
Monday through Saturday ( firing of muskets and
scheduled
to 4: 00 p. m.
and
helping to build
arms,
Logistics:
as
musket
gabions),
Exhibits
of
equipment,
interpretive
making wooden fortifications (
drum playing, tomahawk throwing,
trying on uniforms, etc.
of
and
to the role of camp
tours,
wagons bringing in
the camps,
manual
gear
ranging from tactics
followers,
supplies
of
etc.
sentries,
Special or
maintenance
building and maintaining the camp
in
1989.
prohibited on
Sundays)
from
mid -March
until
a. m.
December.
The Guardhouse will be open only when the encampment is closed
for
the
season.
�THE BRICKYARD
Brickmaking will begin the first week in June.
The
work will reflect everything learned about molding bricks over
the past eighteen years.
Research has led to some conclusions
regarding the process used by the colonial Virginia brickmaker,
the ways in which the trade was organized, how it functioned in
the colonial economy, and the people involved in brickmaking.
Every document and reference still available relating
to brickmaking in Virginia from 1600 through the nineteenth
century, focusing specifically on Williamsburg in the colonial
period,
was
carefully
examined,
and an exhaustive study of
several English accounts was undertaken.
The
most
complete
accounts came from a French encyclopedia published in 1761.
forty folio size pages of text were translated. This French
Over
source also yielded several paints showing all aspects of work.
As a result of this research Historic Trades had to
rethink some of the commonly held ideas about brickmaking.
One popular notion says that the clay used to make
bricks came from the excavations of cellars and footings at
building sites, and
proposed building.
that bricks were always made on site for a
While this may have been true in some cases,
it can' t be used as a statement of common practice.
Where
the
clay is concerned, not just any claylike subsoil will make good
bricks.
Knowledgeable brickmakers sought clay of a particular
consistency
the loamy,
and
quartz
lime,
and
and texture.
All
subsoil,
the material found beneath
organic topsoil layer, is composed of clay particles
( sand),
with small amounts of minerals such as iron,
magnesium.
Good brick clay is approximately two to
three parts clay particle to sand.
The brickmaker relied on his
training and experience to judge the qualities of a potential
brick clay.
Firing,
or " burning,"
the bricks is another critical
part of the operation that requires skill and care.
Church
vestry records usually stipulate that only " well burnt" bricks be
used in the construction of a proposed church building. This
brings up a burned.
controversial point on terminology related to how the
bricks were
The
terms " clamp"
and " kiln" may have been used
interchangeably in general usage from the Middle Ages through the
mid - nineteenth century.
potatoes,
or
bricks.
A clamp can be a pile of anything - -hay,
In brickmaking specifically, a clamp is a
volume of unfired bricks stacked for the purpose of firing,
and
the entire mass is disassembled when the firing is completed. A
kiln is a permanent or semi - permanent shell of burned bricks that
is periodically filled with unfired bricks for the purpose of
firing them.
By the late seventeenth century, people writing
about the brickmaking trade clearly indicate that clamps and
�kilns worked in distinctly different ways.
general
description and
similarly constructed,
one
were
but
Kilns
fired with wood.
without
the
fit
the
Clamps
above
were
thick burned brick shell
layer of burned bricks would sometimes be used to cover the
The significant difference was that, during
crushed coal was layered around and between the
Tunnels at the base were
unfired bricks as they were stacked.
filled with a combination of wood and coal, the wood being used
to ignite the coal.
Once the coal was ignited, a clamp burned on
its own until the fuel was spent.
A kiln had to be fueled and
outside
of
a
clamp).
construction,
Documentation
tended constantly during the course of the burn.
indicates that kilns produced higher percentages of " well- burnt,"
or good quality brick,
but
clamps did not
require
the
intense
labor and management in firing.
The term " clamp"
never appears in any of the colonial
Virginia documents that we have examined. "
Kiln" or " Kill" is
always
used.
The records seem to indicate that bricks in
Virginia
were
wood
fired,
after the manner of English country
kilns.
As
with
other
trades
in
Virginia,
the
skills
were
first
imported and then passed on.
As early as 1610, " brickmakers,"
along with bricklayers, lime burners, and other tradesmen, were
being recruited to come to Virginia.
The
distinction made
between brickmaker and bricklayer signifies
recognized as different skills and separate
that the
trades.
two were
Some skilled brickmakers were evidently itinerant,
moving
from place
bricks.
On
the
to place,
other
hand,
contracting
brickyards
with
would
whomever
operate
required
for
of years in one place, supplying bricks for a particular
Humphrey Harwood,
Williamsburg builder and bricklayer,
maintained brickyards that supplied bricks for different
numbers from two to three hundred to upward of 30, 000.
a period
locale.
jobs
in
The skill and labor for making bricks was provided by
slaves and indentured servants.
The following entry from
Harwood' s ledger indicates the skills embodied in one of his
a
slaves,
ranges
man
named
Sam.
The quality of bricks made in the colonial period
from the excellent examples found in the Wythe and Palmer
Houses to the very poor bricks
and
the
Powell
smokehouse.
in the east wall of
Our
goal
is
to produce
Prentis Store
hard,
durable
bricks that can be used to repair and restore Williamsburg' s
historic buildings
and
for
reconstruction
projects.
The
bricks
that we make this summer may be used to rebuild the fireplaces in
the
Courthouse.
In the course of producing bricks that are "
tempered
and
well
burned,"
we
visitors a dynamic picture of
existed.
want
well
to show Williamsburg' s
the trade as it traditionally
�1111111111111111111111111111111111111111
655: 1111111: 111: 111:
ilifirgi$ 01110
r
IIIIIIIIIIIII Trees & Maid
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111
uninsini Brush
de511111151 l 1 l 11111
11
Duman
131111111111111111111111111 ----------
Clay Pit
Fired Brick
s1111111
11111111111
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111
sillatasminialmals
Wood Piles
111111111111111111111111
11111111
1 1A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111
411111111111111111111 Trees & 11111111
iIlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIl B n' s h 11111111
taksninommuini
11111111
11111111111111111111111111111111111
111111111111111111111111111111111
111111111111111111111111111111
0 ••• ••• •••• ••• •.:
11111111111. 11111111111111111
Drying
111111111111111111111111111111
t • ".
Shed
0 t • • t • • 11111111111111111111111111111111
41111111111111111111
1111111111
lefeeelItifeWel,""
ft/
%%%%%%%%
tetet•
Ve
Ls' \ NV."••••\
s%
t•
N•
N Vs".
W.V.', \ •.% \
Ws \ %
VC% \
S
al ‘
it Moulding
flit
1
AMETIff
s W....
W.V....
W.:
00.W..
1.; 414143cs •
Well- xt'llttgv•
ta
itegii`sitYs
4141<>/Icfr<f%!<;:
r
xf:0-
fit
Carpentry Shop
Framing Yard
Clay
gPtIgrITIVTIrcicri
4- 11grIggp`
4,11.
p
PAV• rIarlarl: 1*,
W
i•t4<---,•••••<•-•<-<••• lt. a•
i• Fc•
3A
SCAT1
finelP .*VA
t
14 r•:gPPIIr vie%,
i
siP P qgP(';
1'.1
elgvIra rbi9. 0
0.
Privy
er• e
Nicholson Street
�TAILORING
It has long been a dream of Colonial Williamsburg to be
able to exhibit the tailoring trade.
The authors of Teaching
History at Colonial Williamsburg advocated the inclusion of this
craft in the future development of the Historic Area.
Our
research
at
present
has
identified
70
tailors
and
one
tailoress
who resided at one time in Williamsburg during the eighteenth
There
century. (
are over
700
tailors
identified
in
colonial_
Virginia.)
The next closest trade to tailors in numbers was
carpenters / joiners,
of whom we have identified 50 individual
craftsmen in Williamsburg.
By exhibiting this craft we have an
opportunity to show the tailor as a merchant, local
competitor,
and
employer.
user of English imported goods,
excellent
Technical processes such as the skills involved in measuring,
cutting,
garment
and
constructing a
three -dimensional
a
from
can
flat
pattern
be
and
demonstrated.
fashionable
Interpreting
tailoring would complement the Millinery and Wig Shops in
discussing the changing fashions of eighteenth- century Virginia.
In
fact,
the
fashion,
clothing,
and
textiles
trades
represented
35. 5 percent of all trades in eighteenth- century Williamsburg.
The next closest
group of
represented
percent
16. 5
trades
of
the
were metal
workers,
who
total.
We will open the Boot Shop as an operating Tailor Shop
three days a week ( Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday) throughout
Those three days were selected because on
the spring and summer.
Wednesday the Millinery Shop is closed and Friday and Saturday
are
upon
the
busiest
days
visitation
of
visitation
patterns
over
the
in
the
past
Historic
few
Area
based
years.
The Millinery
Shop will continue a six day operation and the textile area will
maintain a five -day operation.
During the summer we will either
propose continuing the tailoring program throughout the rest of
1989 or be able to reopen the Boot Shop.
Goals
and
Objectives:
The
interpret
overall
the
work,
goal
lives,
for
this
site
will
and environment
of
be:
to accurately
tailoring as
represented in eighteenth- century Williamsburg and to establish
and preserve the
technology,
The
objectives
interpretive
to interpret
and
processes,
will
and
skills
of
the
trade.
be:
the role of
the
tailor in Williamsburg
Virginia
to interpret
the technology,
organization,
to identify
interpret
processes,
and working environment of
skills,
tailoring
those individuals who were tailors and
their
lives
�to compare and contrast Williamsburg tailors with
English
tailors
to link the interpretation to the knowledge and
interest of the visitors
Throughout the experimental period the tailors will
make
a number of different
coat,
child' s
frock,
banyan.
waistcoat,
waistcoat,
and
items,
breeches,
breeches,
including breeches,
and
coat,
suit
waistcoat,
consisting
riding habit waistcoat,
of
a
and
The list of clothing represents the period 1750 - 1790 and
the articles will be exact reproductions of existing pieces in
our collection.
Additional research needs to be done on men' s
pre -1750 fashions before we can make exact reproductions from
that period of the eighteenth century.
�CHILDREN' S
PROGRAMS
Once Upon a Town
Children ages
Costumed interpreters and local
4 - 6.
children in costume will lead young visitors on a walking tour of
the Palace green neighborhood and explore the lives puppets,
of young
Games,
people in eighteenth- century Williamsburg.
visiting the livestock, and other participatory activities will
The program varies daily.
occur.
Tickets are sold at the Courthouse in the Historic Area.
Limited
to
14
children per program.
Younq Apprentice Tour
Children ages
interpreter,
Led by a costumed historical
10 - 12.
tour participants focus on young American at work
and play as they walk through an eighteenth- century community.
Actively participating in activities of trade and domestic
crafts,
today' s young visitors learn about their eighteenth Who was
century
counterparts.
educated
at home?
White and
girls?
Who became
an
apprentice?
How, did opportunities differ for boys versus How was
black?
Special "
hands - on"
leisure
time
spent?
and active inquiry activities vary
daily and encourage participants to interact with the restored
eighteenth- century community that was the heart of Britain' s
largest
continental
colony.
Tickets are sold at the Courthouse in the Historic Area.
Limited to 20 children per tour.
Stepping into the Past:
Families at work and play in colonial
Virginia
Twentieth -century families will " step back in time"
investigate family life in this colonial community.
The
to
roles
of
and children of varying ages will be examined through
women,
activities that re- create the work patterns and leisure -time
men,
activities
of
a
different
era.
This participatory program will
encourage parents and children to learn together about family
life in colonial Virginia.
Tickets are sold at the Courthouse in the Historic Area.
Activities are designed
Limited to 16 people per tour. (
for the
participation of children over seven years old.)
All programs begin and end at the flag on Market Visitor'green near
Spare s
Check the "
the
Courthouse,
Companion"
weather permitting.
for times and ticket information.
�Family Tours at the Capitol
Designed primarily for families with children 6 - 12
years
of
age.
This 35 minute tour of the Capitol provides a
thought - provoking participatory exploration of the basic
processes of 18th -century government.
For more information see the Visitor' s Companion.
Young Curator' s Tours at the DeWitt Wallace Decorative Arts
Gallery
This hour -long tour for children ages 7 - 11 explores the
Gallery to find new ways of looking at objects.
The tour
emphasizes interactive and participatory techniques to involve
the "
young
curators"
in exciting discovery experiences.
The tour is limited to ten children per tour,
may be made by calling extension 2936.
the Visitor' s Companion.
and
For more
reservations
information see
Special summer tours offered June 19 through August 20,
1989
Young Colonials Club Childrens Program
Beginning Monday,
summer,
June 13th and continuing through the
there will be two children' s activity programs
exclusively for the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation hotel guest
children ages
5 - 10 years of
age.
The programs will run from 12: 00 p. m. -
3: 00 p. m.
and
from 5: 00 p. m. 8: 00 p. m daily.
The afternoon program is held
in the historic area, and the evening program is held on the
Motor House
grounds.
10. 00 per child,
Each program includes a meal.
The cost is
per program and will be charged to the guests
room.
this
Please make a special effort to inform the guest about
program.
�Questions
10,
Vol.
No.
Answers
4
August
This
issue
of
Questions
and
Answers
cleaned
format
from
in the eighteenth century?
of
Questions
original
correct
the
and
Answers
responds
how were
many inquiries we have received about,
Instead of
we
have
the usual
excerpted
Soaft
spelling.
Senior
Interpreter.
Soap
16
lb
potash
25
potash it must bear an
on the fat
2
receipts
thus we have made no attempt to
For additional reading we have
sources,
Trades
to the
clothes
included a bibliography suggested by Su Carter,
Historic
1989
pails
lb
egg
fat
hot
water
to dissolve
to
dissolve
the fat
the
then pour it
the lye and let it boil for soap 5 lb potash makes
lye
hard soap of
Snow
1 lb hard soap Sliced melt it slow over the fire
then take 8 lb frech snow stiring it often till it rises a
strum
then
1
wants . 3 hours boiling,
it
hard
soap
1
wine
Glassfull
I
Salt
had
in
but
it
it,
3
for
will
give
6
for
one
soap
best
add
when you boil
hot
in
when
the
soap,
trow it
stired
botom
in
the
of
in
well
a
next
tub
a
your soap take out 2 pails of
tub,
till
to
stirr
Dissolve' d
civer
day cut
in
it
the
a
Sup plate
Salt
then
trow
a
bottom
then
trow
the
while
little
water
your
out
stains
1 pail water with a little weak Lye 1 table spoon
will boil any stains out Linen or Cotton very
turpentine in,
good for corse
when put in
things
to
git
clean you
must
wet
them
first
dip your ink stain' s in clean Candle Grease Melted
and let it dry on- the linen till washing
stains
on
it
then
disapears
rub it with fine rosin and hogs lard then rub soap
pour hot lye on it 2 or 3 times till the Stains
then wash it
in Clean soap suds
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�2
A ball to take out stains from linnen
Take foure ounces of white hard Soape,
mortar with two small Lemmons sliced, and as
an hasell nut,
roll it up in a ball, rub the
beate
much
it
roche
staine
in
a
allome
as
therewith,
and after fetch it out with warme water if neede be.
Iron mould out of Linen and Grease out of
Woolen &
Silk
4 Oz of Spirits of turpentine of the essence of Lemon
mixt
well
together put
in a
bottle for use
To remove Iron Molds from Cotton or Linen.
Take an earthen vessel, pour into it boiling water,
then spread the stained parts of your cloth over it, let it
remain
until
well
penetrated
with
the
steam,
then
rub
on
the
places sorrel juice mixed with salt until it is well soaked.
Such cloths washed afterwards in common lye, will be made free
from
spots
of
.
mold.
To remove Carriage Wheel Grease from Woollen Cloth
rubbed
To effect this,
with fresh butter,
the
then
spots
of
grease
must
lay on two or three
blotting paper and apply a hot flat iron to it;
entirely
take
out
the
be
first
strips of
this
will
spots.
To Extract Grease or Stains from Mourning
Take a good handfull of fig leaves,
quarts of water till
a
bottle
for
use.
boil
them on two
put it
the quantity is reduced to a pint,
in
This liquor will take any stains or spots of
grease out
of Ladies mourning dresses, such as bombasines,
crapes,
cloths,
etc.
It is only necessary to rub the soiled part
with a sponge dipped in the liquor.
To Take
Mildew out
Wet
water,
of
Linen
the linen which contains the mildew with soft
rub it well with white soap, then scrape some fine chalk
to powder and rub it well into the linen, lay it out on the grass
in the sunshine,
watching to keep it damp with soft water. Repeat
the process the next day, and in a few hours the mildew will
entirely disappear.
To Take Off Spots of Any Sort,
From Any Kind of Cloth
Take half a pound of crude honey,
laid
egg,
and
the bulk of
a nut of
the
yolk
of
a
new
aromatic salt, then mix all
well together,
then put some on the spots; having left it there
awhile,
then wash it off with clean water, and the spot will
�3
immediately disappear. This receipt is of great importance to
servants that have the care of their master' s wardrobe,
many
other
similar
and
To Remove Ink Stains From Cloth, Plaid, Silk or Worsted, &
Take one pint of rain or other soft water,
it half an ounce of oxalic, citric, or tartaric acid;
and
shake
it
well;
to
use
it,
c
dissolve in
the
ounce will be sufficient to mix the pint strong enough,
very close
in
cases.
half
cork it
lay the part affected
over a bowl of hot water, but not to touch the water, and let the
steam evaporate
sponge into it,
disappears,
hurt
the
through,
then shake up the solution and dip a
and rub well the part affected until the stain
hen hangit out in the sun,
finest
fabric.
Dolcey' s Mode of Doing up Muslin,
Muslin,
Cambk,
and
and this solution will not
Silk,
common
Camb[ ric] k,
clothes (
Stuff
except
flannel)- -
wash in two waters as hot as you can bear it with hard soap,
strong suds then boil in blue water until white - -if very yellow
they must be rubbed with hard soap when put into the Kettle.
the
water must be just warm in the kettle when the clothes are put
in.
and
Then well boiled.
dry them- - for thin
When white
enough
take
them out,
muslin use very thick starch,
for
wring
thick
muslin and cambk very thin -- squeeze out the starch, wring them in
old linen or diaper, then dry them again the cambk must be
sprinkled before it is ironed.
the muslin must only be clapped
until perfectly clear, then placed smooth with the hands and
ironed when dry,
muslin should always be boiled in a brown linen
bag not too thick - brown rolls is the best.
dresses never boiled
with anything but muslin articles.
silk,
stuff,
colored clothes
and flannel must be washed twice in mild warm suds then wrung out
clear,
rolled
smooth.
silk and stuff ironed on the wrong side
before they are dry- - this
sprinkled
and
ironed
as
gives
a
cambks.
gloss.
flannel
colored
clothes
smooth' d with
after shaking them a little then hung out to dry.
up
as
other
silks.
like blue water.
stiffen' d with gum
the wrong
done
white are ting' d with pink by drop cake made
Black crape is washed in clear water then
arabic,
colored winter vests
on
the hands
silk hose
side.
clapped and very lightly ironed.
in milk warm suds, twice, ironed when damp,
Old Dolls Method of Washing Color' d Dresses
Wash them in two lathers of milk warm water,
rinse
them in fair water milk warm then have ready their starch enough
to wet the whole dress.
3 table spoonsful of starch to half a
handful of salt, make
dress through it, and
thick,
it
and
hang it out
prevents the colour from running.
thin
it
afterwards.
to dry -- starching
with
run
salt
the
�4
To Wash Flannels
wash
them
In washing flannels - make a lather of milk warm water
in
this,
and in two more lathers of milk warm water
then wring out the suds and hang out to dry.
or
fair water,
never
rinse
in
cold
it makes the flannel shrink.
To wash silk stockings
Take weak Lye such as is used for washing clothes,
wash the stockings in it cold very clean with soap, then soak
them
well,
put them in clean lye and boil them '
blue comes out.
till
all
the
old
then chop up some soap and put it into a pint of
Lye,
put it on the fire and let it boil till the soap is melted,
then take it off and add to it 2 large spoonfulls of liquid blue,
strain it and it, in the stockings while it is scalding hot rub
put
them well in
then take them out and rub them again well with
the hands,
then let them hang in the shade '
then mangle
them.
NB.
a pint of
till about half dry
Lye with 2 spoonfulls of Blue
will do about 4 or 5 pair of stockings.
To restore Whiteness to scorched Linen
Ingredients - 1/ 2
earth,
2
large
1
oz.
onions.
Mode- -
consistency
damaged
pint of vinegar,
of dried fowls'
of
dung,
1/ 2
oz.
2
of
oz.
of
soap,
fuller' s -
the
juice
of
Boil all these ingredients together to teh
spread the composition thickly over the
paste;
part,
and if the threads be not actulaly consumed, after
it has been allowed to dry on, and the place has subsequently
been washed once or twice,
disappear.
every trace of
scorching will
Preservatives against the Ravages of Moths
Place pieces of camphor, cedar - wood, Russia leather,
bog - myrtle, or anything else strongly aromatic,
tobacco - leaves,
in the drawers or boxes where furs or other things to be
preserved from moths are kept,
To Make
and
they will
never
take harm.
Starch
Peel and grate a quantity of potatoes, put the pulp
into a coarse cloth, between two boards, and press it into a dry
cake;
the juice thus pressed out of the potatoe, must be mixed
with
an
equal
quantity of
deposit a fine sediment,
water, and in an hour' s time
which may be used as starch.
it will
�5
Relay Custis Lewis' s Housekeeping Book
edited by Patricia Brady Smith, New Orleans: Historic New Orleans
Collection, 1982
TX 153 . L65 1982
COLL
HIST INT
Marquart,
John
Six Hundred Receipts, worth their weight in gold.... (
edition),
Paducah Ky.: Collector Books, n. d.
641. 55 M357
Roberts,
facsimile of
1867
Robert
The House Servant' s Directory. (
facsimile of 1827 edition),
Mass.:
647. 2
Waltham,
The Gore Place Society, 1977.
R647
Bryan,
Lettice
The Kentucky Housewife. (
reprint
of
1839 edition),
Paducah,
Ky.:
Collector Books, 1970.
TX715 . B915 1970
Plat,
Sir Hugh
Delightes for Ladies. (
COLL DA 110 . P42
reprint
of
edition),
London:
Lockwood,
1948.
A Colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pinckney
Horry,
1770
edited by Richard Hooker,
Press,
Columbia, S. C.:
University of South Carolina
1984.
TX703 . H67 1984
CRAFT
COLL
On the Score of Hospitality: Selected Receipts of a VanRensselaer Family,
Albany, New York, 1785 - 1835
edited by Jane Carpenter Kellar, Ellen Miller, Paul Stambach.
Albany, N. Y.: Historic Cherry Hill, 1986.
TX703 .
Grant,
05
1986
Elizabeth ( Raper)
The Receipt Book of Elizabeth Raper and a Portion of her Cipher Journal.
Nonesuch Press, 1924.
edited by Bartle Grant.
Soho ( Eng.):
TX705 . G72
Warren,
COLL
Jane
Sweet Home"
Cook Book. (
Collector Books,
641. 55 W289
facsimile of undated edition),
Paducah, Ky.:
n. d.
Martha Washington' s Hooke of Cookery.
edited by Karen Hess, New York: Columbia Universtiy Press, 1981.
TX705 . M368
Smith,
COLL CRAFT
Eliza
The Compleat Housewife,
reprint of
House Pub.,
or, Accomplished Gentlewoman' s Companion.
1758 edition),
1983.
TX705 . S53 1983
CRAFT
King' s Langley, Herts.,
Eng.:
Arlon
�6
August
1,
TO:
All HAPO Supervisors and Interpreters
FROM:
Conny Graft
SUBJECT:
1989
Evaluation of' Ouestions and Answers
The publication Ouestions and Answers was created in
August 1980, for the purpose of answering historical questions that
interpreters'
receive
from visitors
and are unable to answer.
Interpreters have been invited to send or call in their questions
to Jane Strauss, the editor,
and she has been responsible for
finding the answers and publishing an issue six times a year.
Over the past few years, arises,Strauss has received very
Jane "
The question now
few questions.
Is the time and effort
Are interpreter' s
spent on Questions and Answers worthwhile ?" "
aware that they have a place to send their questions ?" "
anyone read the issues when they arrive ?" "
useful ?"
Is
the
Does
information
I would like to hear your candid assessment of Ouestions
and Answers along with your suggestions for the future.
Please
take a minute to fill out the form on the back of this sheet and
return it to Conny Graft at the Davidson Shop through interoffice
mail.
eon nc{
Conny Graft
�SURVEY FOR OUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Date:
1)
Department:
Were you aware of the purpose of Ouestions and Answers and
how it worked?
YES
2)
NO
Do you find the information in this publication useful?
YES
NO
3)
If
4)
Please check the statement below that best reflects your
so
how?
If not, why not?
opinion.
I would like to see this publication continued.
I do not want to see this publication continued.
I would like to see it continued with some changes.
I would like to suggest the following changes:
5)
Do you have any other comments you would like to make
regarding Questions and Answers?
RETURN TO CONNY GRAFT,
DAVIDSON SHOP
DIE
8/ 89
�Questions
Vol.
10,
Answers
5
No.
October
1989
This issue of Questions and Answers addresses the
Kris Dippre,
use of cosmetics in the eighteenth century.
Pasteur &
Galt
Apothecary,
supplied
frequently asked questions about
1.
the
this
answers
to
the most
subject.
Did Women Wear Cosmetics in the Eighteenth Century?
First
of
all,
Cosmetic
is
according
complete
The
derived
to
considered
let' s
define
from
an
word "
the word "
dictionaries
as
the
orderly
is " the
cosmetics."
cosmos,"
world
system . . .
or
which
universe
any harmonious
and
system."
Greeks
used
the word " kosmetikos,"
which
meant "
skill
in decorating."
With
these
thoughts
in mind,
the
eighteenth century was
EightenCentury
indeed interested in perfecting what was not already
perfected,
that is,
not
always
in harmony.
Horace Walpole is quoted as saying, " The characteristics
of the Age are frenzy, folly, extravagance and
insensibility."
Yes,
women - -
eighteenth
The "
and
Macaroni
England
for
sometimes
century,
Club,"
men - - wore
sometimes
for
very
example,
cosmetics
in
the
noticeably.
was
established
in
those young gentlemen who had traveled abroad
and had returned home,
bringing with them the " worldly"
knowledge of the latest in fashion and hygiene.
They not
only worshiped the finest in fabrics and tailored cuts
but apparently painted their faces with a bit of color
and doused themselves with the latest in colognes.
2.
What
Were Cosmetics
Made
From?
Animal,
vegetable,
Everything.
are still made that way today.
Clays
like
kaolin,
and
commonly known
as
mineral.
fuller' s
Cosmetics
earth,
were
used in the eighteenth century and are still used in the
twentieth century in skin masks for drying oils.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
Cosmetic
�Animal fats and oils such as tallow and lanolin were used.
still used in ointments and creams.
They are
J
Some
of the
same minerals,
to tint and color makeup,
from the
cochineal
animals,
and
chemicals
are
still
insect to
create
the
color red.
Carmine
also be produced from brazilwood ( Caesalpinia echinata),
used
tropical
tree
Garcinia
gamboge (
produces
an
used
including carmine, which can be produced
bark
found
in
a
hanburyi),
orange- red yellow
fabric
gum
color
and
tree
and
was
also
often
dyes.
leather
resin
Gum
from
a
can
an
Cambodia,
popular
rouge.
It is a color used on canvas in oil painting today.
Other plants gums like tragacanth and arabic ( Mucilago Tragacanthe
and Arabaca respectively) are resins from Middle Eastern plants
that are still found in cosmetics such as hair gels and are even
used in foods today as thickeners.
3.
Some of the Ingredients Used in Cosmetics Were Apparently Not Very
Safe.
For
example,
Is
It
True
That
Women
Would
Swallow
Small
Amounts of Arsenic to Clear the Complexion?
I have searched and am still searching through primary documents
and
cannot
find
one
reference
that
includes
arsenic
as
ingredient internally or externally for cosmetic purposes.
an
The
thought of arsenic as an additive in order to whiten or clear the
skin
is
perhaps
investigation
a
twentieth -century
before
officially
idea
being
and
needs
further
incorporated
in
interpretations.
in
an
medical
arsenic
eighteenth- century
looking
up
dictionary, it' s hard to imagine where the clearing concept was
1771
derived
from.
In quoting the Encyclopedia Britannica,
When
edition,
don' t
arsenic is " the most volatile of all the semi -metals" (
light
a
match).
when
Also,
extracted
from
cobalt
so
arsenic
is a white powder.
It can also be red or yellow depending on the
amount of sulphur added to it.
And even if it starts as a white
using
powder,
it
externally
or
internally
will
give
you
the
following results:
According to the 1955 U.
S.
Dispensatory: "
All
the
preparations
of arsenic are exceedingly poisonous to both man and the lower
The specific symptoms of arsenicalism, the drug may give
animals.
rise to alterations of the skin,
the most important of these are
particular dryness and a tendency to the overgrowth of ' Keratin
proteins)
as shown by the formation of warts, ridges on the
finger
the
nails
internal
measles
of
coarseness
use
attended
inflammation
produced,
of
of
as
of
the
hair . . .
arsenic
causes
in
affection
mucous
that
membranes).
a
rash
with
In some instances
not unlike that of
catarrhal
Sometimes
and occasionally the hair and nails fall off."
They were award of this in the eighteenth century.
symptoms
salivation
is
�1794:
Quoting the Edinburgh New Dispensatory,
The pure white arsenic has a penetrating corrosive
taste; and taken into the body to the extent even of
only a few grains,
proves a most violent poison."
The book continues, recommending arsenic in tiny doses for " Fever,
periodic
headachs . ."
even as an application for " cancerous
is arsenic recommended for cosmetics, and
side effects, one can probably understand
But nowhere
because of its obvious
tumours."
why.
4.
Did Some Cosmetics Really Contain Lead?
I
Yes,
can find several
carbonate
which
is
of
lead,
Latin
Apothecaries
either
by
recipes of cosmetics containing lead or
often
referred
for " white
often
made
importing
it
on
preparing
dispensatories.
this
the
the
to
as "
ceruse"
or "
Cerussa,"
lead."
product
finished
site
with
available
product
the
in
from
aid
of
their
shops,
Europe
one
or
of
by
many
White lead was considered a base for holding color, just like lead
was used
could be
as a base
spread on
for
the
house and wall paints
face as a foundation,
added to use as rouge and lip color.
and Paint by Neville Williams ( 1957):
for years.
So
or color could
it
be
Quoting one source, Powder
Once coloring was added,
"
ceruse became paint and paint it was nearly always called."
Sir Robert Moray is given credit for its invention.
audience in a lecture
I)
cast
pigs
of
in
clean,
1661 how he had made
soft
into
lead,
He
told
an
ceruse:
thin
plates
and
then
Each plate was put into a pot, being prevented from
Vinegar was added " to effect
touching the bottom of it by a bar.
rolled them.
the conversion.
The pots were separately covered with lead plates
and stacked and boarded up in a bed of fresh horse droppings and
left for three weeks digestion.
The plates
as from inside each pot were then unrolled,
from the top as well
beaten
the
with
battledores ( flat
paddles)
till
laid
on
a
flakes
board
came
and
off.
These flakes were then ground in a mill to a very fine powder;
water was added and the mixture was left to dry in the sun until
it
was
hard.
appropriate
The
coloring
resulting
and
ceruse
perfume."
was
Sir
then
Robert
ready
also
for
the
noted
the
possible accidents to the work -men during these processes.
These
included " Contorsion of the stomach, constipation, shortness of
dizziness,
great pains in the brows and even blindness,
breath,
all caused by noxious fumes from the lead."
A much
safer and much more expensive base for rouges and creams
was " bear' s grease " -- literally the fat of the animal melted down.
5.
How
Were
Colors
Produced?
�Many home guides on every topic including producing one' s own
cosmetics were written in the eighteenth century.
best way to illustrate colors is to list some of
recipes
found
in
one
of
the
most
popular
Flora,
published
at Fleet Street
and
London,
1784.
Colonial Williamsburg' s
guides,
St.
I
think
the
the
Paul' s
the
actual
Toile
Church
de
Yard,
Boundary Street Research
Library has an original copy:
A
Rouge
for
the
Face
Alkanet Root strikes a beautiful red when mixed with Oils or
Pomatums.
A
scarlet
or
gives
Rose - colored
the
Ribband
if
cheeks,
wetted
rubbed
with
with
it,
a
water or brandy,
beautiful bloom that can hardly be distinguished from the
natural
color.
Others only use a Red Sponge, which tinges
the
cheeks
of
a
fine
carnation
color."
Another
Take Brazil Wood Shavings,
and Roch Alum,
beat them together
in a coarse powder, and boil in a sufficient quantity of Red
Wine,
till two thirds of the Liquor are consumed.
decoction
with
6.
a
had
bit
of
stood
till
cold,
rub
a
little
When this
on
the
cheeks
cotton."
What Was a Beauty Patch and What Was the Purpose Behind Wearing
One?
Patching
the
sixteenth
face,
century,
a
fashion just beginning
reached
fantastic
at
the end of the
proportions
in
the
later
seventeenth century and persisted to the eighteenth.
Patches were usually cut from black taffeta or from very thin
Spanish leather, generally red.
They were always perfumed. Gummed
paper was used for economy' s sake.
Favorite shapes
included stars,
were
either
placed
on
several
were worn
Gummed
paper
benzoin,
at
one
patches
mastic,
side
of
crescents,
the
face
and diamonds.
and
forehead.
Patches
Sometimes
time.
were
or arabic,
gummed
with
plant
resins
such
as
which were sold by apothecaries.
Another way to adhere patches to the skin was simply to wet and
reapply them.
Samuel
Pepys
Castlemaine
as
recorded
he
sat
a
near
wonderful
her
at
the
description
theater
one
of
a
night.
Lady
He
noticed her " call to one of her attendants for a little patch off
her face,
and put it into her own mouth and wetted it, and so
clapped it upon her own by the side of her mouth."
he continued, "
she feeling a pimple rising there."
I
suppose,"
�before
Apparently,
long
yet
another
use
for
this
practice
was
found.
In the early eighteenth century during the great battles
between
the
rival
political
parties
in Queen
Anne' s
reign,
many
women wore patches as party favors.
Whig ladies patched the right
side, Tories the left.
For the politically unbiased, both cheeks
could
be
patched
at
once.
Remember,
Patches were also worn to covering scarring.
an
illness
famous
for literally
leaving its mark,
smallpox,
was
a
major
concern. Smallpox left marks on the face more than anywhere else
Patches
because of the virus' s affect on the sebaceous glands.
could cover these pits in a decorative way.
7.
Were
In
There
a
Recipes
sense,
for
Corrective
Makeups?
Smallpox seemed to be the big threat of the
eighteenth century, and several recipes can be found for healing
For example:
and hiding the scars it caused.
yes.
Quoting the Toile de Flora):
A
cosmetic
water,
of
great
to
use,
prevent
pits
after
the
Smallpox:
Dissolve an ounce and a half of Salt in a pint of Mint -Water;
them together , arcl ti2o 'Cue \ t
st . `%\ ts \s a verb
useful Wash for the face after the Small pox, in order to
boil
clear
away
the
allay
scabs,
the
itching,
and
remove
the
redness."
Smallpox wasn' t the only concern,
To
remove
Houseleek,
and
Celandine,
distill it in a sand heat,
To
course.
For
example:
Freckles:
Take
of
remove Worms
of
each
an
equal
quantity;
and wash with the distilled Water.
in the Face:
Make use of the distilled Waters of the Whites of Eggs,
Flowers,
Water Lilies,
Solomon' s
either
Seal,
mixed
White
together,
White Lilies,
Roses,
or
of
Melon Seeds,
Crumb
separately,
of
with
Wheaten
the
Bean
Iris Roots,
Bread,
addition
of
the White of a new -laid Egg.
A Remedy for St.
Antony' s Fire or Erysipelatous Eruptions on the
Face.
Take
Narcissus
ounce;
Roots,
an
ounce;
fresh
Nettle- seeds,
half
an
beat them together into a soft paste with a sufficient
quantity of White Wine Vinegar, and anoint the eruptions
therewith every night; or, bathe the part affected with the
Juice
of
Cresses."
�All
8.
from Toila
da
Flora,
1784)
Was the Complete Look Comparable to Today' s Look?
Let me describe
it, and I' ll
let you decide.
Starting at the top, it seems that hair styles, whether a person' s
own or a wig,
were generally worn with some height above the
forehead, whether with bangs or not.
The forehead was preferably
exposed, to allow more expression to the eves.
The eves were not
usually accentuated with shadows or mascaras ( mascara is more
recent) but the expressive accent was on the eyebrows.
Eyebrows,
I have
even when wearing a white wig, were dark and very arched.
Virginia gentlemen prized
found recipes for darkening the brows.
this feature on a woman, according to Philip Vickers Fithian, an
and thought it odd if a
cut them.
References to
eighteenth -century tutor at Nomini Hall,
woman
tried
to
lighten
the
mouseskin eyebrows have been
brows
or
found
Literally made of mouse skin,
including the fir, these appliances could be added over one' s own
brows with a little gum resin adhesive,
The
face
pearl
itself
be
brushed with
a
little
rice
powder
or
literally), the latter giving the face a bit of a
Brushes"
could be a soft rag or a piece of cotton.
powder (
luster. "
The
could
or with one' s own spittle.
cheeks,
special
as
mentioned
and
occasions,
before,
this
known for their natural look,
Englishwomen
the
by
Italianate"
were
included
rouged,
especially for
Englishwomen.
Originally
once Italian styles traveled abroad,
mid - eighteenth
to
according
traveler' s
one
looked "
century
very
observations,
and
when stepping out for an evening, were apparently
Rouge
was
not
not to be outdone by their city sisters.
necessarily blended to look natural, beauty patches were put in
countrywomen,
place,
and the " crayons" (
lipstick is a twentieth -century phrase)
were dabbed on liberally.
Last,
but by no means least, if the lady was missing a few
necessary items, such as teeth, dentures of many substances,
including porcelain, could be bought, and so could a pair of
plumpers,"
mouth
on
round balls
both
sides
of cork cut
between
the
in half and
cheeks
and
slid
gums
inside the
to
create
a
healthy look by filling out the sunken cheeks.
The suntan was not popular yet, and many recipes for " washing out
a
tan"
have
been
fact, to some,
head with
a
found ( none
of
which
I
think
would
tanned skin meant " working class,"
wide -brimmed hat was often
done.
work).
In
and covering the
Fithian noted that
local Virginia women placed scarves over their heads and tied them
under
their
chins (
like
the
1960s
movie
star
look),
perhaps
to
protect the skin from the harsh elements of the sun and the sandy,
dusty streets.
His original thought when first arriving in the
colony and seeing this
Virginia
women "
fashion was that an incredible number of
suffered
from the Toothache!"
K
�as
judge.
So,
far
as
a
comparative
look,
I' ll
let
the
reader
be
the
The subject has proven to be fascinating.
For further reading,
have derived my quotes:
I suggest the following books,
Powder and Paint, Neville Williams,
The
The
Artificial
Toila
De
Face,
Fenja
Flora,
Gunn,
London,
from which
I
1957 ( Historic Trades Library)
1973 (
1784 (
Collections Library)
Boundary
Street
Research
Library) Rare Section
The Diary of Philip Vickers Fithian, edited by Hunter Dickinson
Farish,
1957 ( All Colonial Williamsburg libraries)
The
Secrets
of
Arts
and
Trades,
London,
1784 (
Historic
Trades
Library)
Encyclopedia Britannica,
Vol.
I,
Edinburgh,
1771 ( Historic Trades
Library)
The
Edinburgh
New
Apothecary Library)
Dispensatory,
London,
1794 (
Pasteur &
Galt
�This is the final issue of Questions and Answers.
We
want to thank our readers who responded to the survey, as well as
sharing their ideas and suggestions as to how we can be more
successful
in gathering and distributing this information to
Out of 400 potential surveys only 36 were
interpreters.
returned.
This suggests
publication
that
the need and
interest
in the
has waned.
The Interpreter Planning Board will incorporate a
Questions and Answers section in future issues of The Interpreter
when
arises.
If you have a question that you would
addressed, please contact your departmental
representative.
Representatives are: -
Th
the
like
to
need
see
Company of Colonial
Performers
Kristi
Everly
Department
Afro
American Interpretation &
Presentations
Historic
Trades
Historical
Department
Interpretation
Department of Visitor Aides
Rosemarie
Byrd
Marcus
Department
Hansen
Brenda
LeClair
Jodi
Norman
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 10, 1989
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/f638d1306042107ff16bbe802ed9b5e3.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=s2QpC3o20Fyggphhe6jIOgHpzt9AB2w6eMb2DSEYYY63px2vIEUpraS1amMPVsFk-y3XpaCZbY9k7jK6hCjle-ezxaTc7HB%7EYO30TTF8qHQCBxIywsqYHQTwaMVSALWNeahl-SdhepBoM5l82K9XLACpyqRDKRN8mz0mA3rou3hZ07R3SZLUXOS4oPchfu6mnpxOoreVq%7ErhvVSRq9EsCDKEDCobp0etEE6vCo%7EJcVrlkgo-kAmw%7Em7HmPAZVrCQgX8YvR9VyhdtOsYt%7EucdcURloKKdZOQaviDZcKXQ74DLmeXYfQ90L4RB62VcBaDw3ruiDWSd%7E8mz-N7JwlKRDw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
d40d478802e126c872d65549f7864e22
PDF Text
Text
Questions
Vol.
9
No.
Answers
1
February 1988
To commemorate Black History Month,
Questions &
this issue of
Answers highlights important people and events
in black history.
January 15,
1929
Birth of Martin Luther King,
January 25,
1863
First black U.
S.
Jr.
Army regiment
organized.
February 2,
1870
Fifteenth Amendment ratified,
guaranteeing suffrage to black
adult
males,
including former
slaves.
February 12,
1926
Dr.
Carter G.
Woodson started
Negro History Week"
February 18,
1688
Quakers of Germantown,
Pa.,
made
the first formal protest against
slavery in colonial America.
March
2,
1807
Congress banned the
March
5,
1770
Death of
man,
slave
trade.
Crispus Attucks,
a black
killed in the Boston
Massacre.
March
6,
1857
The Supreme Court
Dred Scott case.
ruled
The
in
the
Court
determined that Scott could not
claim any
rights
because of his
March
10,
1913
Harriet
Tubman,
as
a
Underground
Railroad " conductor,"
March
21,
1965
Martin Luther King,
March
24,
1837
died.
Jr.,
thousands of marchers
to Montgomery,
citizen
race.
led
from Selma
Ala.
Canada gave blacks
the right to
vote.
April
4,
1968
Martin Luther King,
Jr.,
assassinated.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
O
�April
10,
1947
Jackie Robinson joined the
Brooklyn Dodgers as the first
black major league baseball
player.
April
14,
1775
First abolition society in U.
founded
in
17,
1820
1782
May 6,
First U.
S.
Liberia,
April
S.
Pa.
West
blacks
arrived in
Africa.
The beginning of the Virginia
Assembly session that allowed
manumission of slaves by
individual owners.
Only certain
categories of slaves could be
the very young,
freed;
and
the
infirm had
the aged,
to be
supported
State
by their former owners.
laws regarding manumission in the
early 19th century were even more
restrictive.
May 12,
1910
N. A. A. C. P.
May 17,
1954
Supreme
Court declared
in public
in
May 18,
1896
The
founded.
schools
Brown v.
segregation
unconstitutional
Board
of
Education.
Court
in
Plessv v.
Supreme
Ferguson explicitly sanctioned
Jim Crow" law governing social
segregation by declaring "
but
equal"
separate
facilities
constitutional.
May 26,
1961
Freedom Ride Coordinating
Committee established in Atlanta,
Ga.
June
1,
1843
Sojourner Truth
began her
left
career as
N.
Y.
and
an antislavery
activist.
June
2,
1950
U.
S.
Supreme
Court
outlawed
segregation of dining cars in
interstate
June
8,
1953
transportation.
U.
S.
Supreme Court ruling banned
discrimination in Washington,
D.
C.,
restaurants.
2
�June
12,
1963
Medgar W.
leader,
Evers,
civil
rights
murdered in Jacksonville,
Miss.
June
13,
1967
Thurgood Marshall was appointed as
the first black justice on the
U.
June
22,
1772
S.
Supreme
Lord Mansfield
Somerset"
Court.
issued
the
decision, abolishing
slavery in England.
June
28,
1770
Philadelphia Quakers
school
1964
July 2,
opened a
for blacks.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was
signed by Lyndon B. Johnson.
It
prohibited discrimination in the
use of
of
federal
public
funds and
accommodation
established
an Equal
in places
and
Employment
Opportunity Commission.
July 9,
1868
Fourteenth Amendment ratified,
securing civil rights for
freedmen.
July
11,
1905
W. E. B. DuBois and William Monroe
Trotter organized the Niagara
Movement, which demanded abolition
of all race distinctions.
July 23,
1778
Over 700 blacks took part
Battle
July 28,
1917
of
in the
Monmouth.
Thousands of
blacks marched down
New York City' s Fifth Avenue in
silent protest of lynching and
racial inequality.
August
13 - 23,
1831
The
South' s bloodiest
slave
insurrection in Southampton
County, Va.,
led by Nat Turner.
August
16,
1816
Peter
Salem,
soldier
August
20,
1619
and
heroic
The first blacks
Jamestown,
indentured
Bunker Hill
Minuteman,
died.
arrived at
They came as
servants, not slaves.
Va.
�August
28,
1963
The
March
largest
on Washington,
civil
demonstration,
Luther King,
the
rights
led by Martin
Jr.
September
24,
1957
Nine children integrated Central
High School in Little Rock, Ark.
September
29,
1760
The Bray School
in Williamsburg
opened.
October
1872
5,
Booker
T.
Hampton
October
12,
1793 "
Washington entered
Institute
The Baptist
in Hampton,
church
of
Va.
black
people at Williamsburg," under the
leadership of Gowan Pamphlet, was
accepted into the Dover Baptist
Association.
The Williamsburg
congregation had organized by
1781.
October
14,
1964
Martin Luther King,
Nobel
October
16,
1984
17,
1972
won
Jr.,
the
Prize.
South African Bishop Desmond Tutu
won
November
Peace
the
Nobel
Peace
Prize.
Andrew Young, Barbara Jordan,
Edward W. Brooks were among
sixteen blacks
elected
to U.
and
S.
Congress.
December
1,
1955
Rosa
Parks
was
arrested
for
refusing to give her seat on a
white
December
6,
1865
public
Ala.,
Montgomery,
bus
to
man.
Thirteenth
Amendment
ratified,
ending slavery in the United
States.
December
10,
1950
Dr.
Ralph
J.
the
Nobel
Peace
black
so
Bunche
honored.
4
was
Prize,
awarded
the
first
a
�Questions ('
Vol.
9,
No.
Answers
2
April
April is the month for Historic Garden Week( s)
Virginia.
We asked Gordon Chappell
1988
in
to answer the
following questions most frequently asked by our visitors.
1.
How often would house interiors contain plants and
flowers?
Why are they used in some of the
fireplaces?
Because of the scarcity of written information
on the use of plants indoors, most of what we know
comes from American and English paintings and English
print sources of the eighteenth century.
Arrangements
of the day consisted of a very few types of flowers
and give the impression that the flowers were picked
at
random.
From the portraits and paintings that
show flower arrangements,
the purpose
appears
to have
just been to brighten up a dark corner in the parlor
or a lady' s room.
Arrangements that were placed on hearths were
usually somewhat larger than those used elsewhere.
Arrangements in the eighteenth century were typically
small and informal, and the number of
house was limited. .
them in
the
The skill of arranging flowers was typically
taught to young girls, and I suspect that flower
arrangements in homes were quite common.
In fact,
magazines published " how - to"
articles
intended to aid
women and girls in beautifying their homes with
flowers.
2.
Why was Palace Street lined with catalpa trees, while
Duke of Gloucester Street and the Capitol and Market
squares were
cleared of
trees?
Catalpa trees are planted on the Palace green
today because they are shown on the Frenchman' s Map
and mentioned by Thomas Jefferson in his writings.
To understand why the formal rows of
trees were
planted along Palace green,
purpose
of
you must understand the
this public space.
The vista and public
space functionally served as a ceremonial entranceway
leading to the Governor' s Palace, hence the perfectly
symmetrical
spacing
of
sentinel
trees.
Duke
of
Gloucester Street and the Capitol and Market squares
served more utilitarian purposes and so were probably
not
planted with
trees.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
s ;
�The planting of catalpa trees along Palace green
was obviously an important feature in eighteenth This is one of only four
locations in Williamsburg where the Frenchman' s Map
century Williamsburg.
indicates
The
trees.
William and Mary,
others are the College
of
the Custis site, and near the
Capitol.
As to why the city fathers of eighteenth -century
Williamsburg chose the catalpa for a street tree, I
have
no
idea.
catalpa ( Catalpa
The
is
bignonioides)
native in the deep South but has become naturalized
Whether or not the catalpa
all along the East Coast.
was commonly known in tidewater Virginia at that time
I
I
don' t know.
suspect
one reason for its use on
Palace green was because it is unusual and not
Nonetheless, when the tree is in
generally known.
It should be
bloom, it puts on a spectacular show.
remembered, however,
that they are quick growing,
soft -wooded trees that reach maturity and then soon
begin
fail.
seeds and bulbs
plants,
Exported?
imported?
The
3.
Were
to
exchange
of
seeds,
and bulbs between
the colonies and the mother country is well
In fact,
documented.
Williamsburg was perhaps the
center of this trading enterprise in the first half
of
the
eighteenth
John Custis
century.
is
remembered
for his plant trading and correspondence with Peter
Collinson, the London merchant who also had a similar
arrangement with
4.
the
Bartrams
of
Philadelphia.
Besides the Governor' s Palace, how many formal
pleasure gardens in Williamsburg are documented?
The gardens at the Benjamin Waller site are well
documented and have been rebuilt as accurately as
possible.
There are many other garden sites in the
Historic Area that follow as closely as possible
eighteenth- century layout of the property.
5.
the
Did formal
in town?
as
Yes,
gardens
appear
on plantations
as
well
depending on the economic stability of the
plantations.
Eighteenth- century gardens at Carter' s
Grove have been found on the river side of the house.
While we today portray this area as a kitchen or
vegetable garden, it is certainly formal in
Gardens are
character, geometric and well balanced.
well documented at other plantations in the South
such as Berkeley, Westover,
Middleton Place
in South
Bacon' s Castle,
Carolina.
and
�6.
Did craftsmen,
merchants,
minor bureaucrats,
etc.,
have herb and vegetable gardens in town as well as
outside
of
town?
Because the town had been laid out by Governor
Nicholson with half -acre lots and houses were
required along the
street,
there was
the back of lots for gardens,
pleasure.
sort,
either
adequate room at
practical
or
for
The American colonist was a practical
and conjecture
suggests
that
he had at
least a plot of herbs and vegetables.
archaeological
excavations at
the
the
Recent
Peyton Randolph
House and Shields Tavern support this conclusion.
Who in the household maintained the garden plot
is
unclear.
Most likely servants or slaves did the
work, but maybe the wife or children or possibly even
the master if time permitted and he had an
inclination toward gardening.
It is unlikely that a merchant or craftsman had
garden
plots
outside
of
town.
There
was
a well
developed delivery system for provisions into
Williamsburg from the surrounding countryside and
frequent market days.
If
a
craftsman or merchant
owned property outside Williamsburg, he likely hired
a tenant farmer to operate the
7.
it.
Who planned the formal gardens?
Who planted
maintained them?
How were they trained?
and
The Palace gardens were laid out by Governor
Alexander Spotswood,
colonies
in
1710.
beginning when he came to the
Earlier a gardener from King
William' s staff of royal gardeners laid out formal
Other
gardens at the College of William and Mary.
gardens in the village were undoubtedly designed as
gardens are often designed today - by the homeowner or
someone else in the family.
I suspect the gardens of
eighteenth- century Williamsburg
showed a good deal
of
diversity, some small and neat, others large and
elaborate, and still other garden areas considerably
neglected.
8.
How was grass trimmed in gardens?
public
open
In
the
large
squares?
The lawn mower didn' t come into common use until
the
late
1860s.
Prior to that lawns were cut with a
scythe or grazed by sheep or cattle.
They were cut only four or five times during the
growing season and in certain areas,
public buildings,
such
not even that often.
as
around
Eighteenth-
�and nineteenth -century lawns were rather coarse as
opposed to the carpet -like lawns of today.
9.
How were bushes
sculptured?
Formally clipped shrubs, called topiary, was an
integral part of American landscape design in the
eighteenth century and was especially popular in the
southern colonies.
Topiary is the art of shaping
plants by careful pruning and shearing into various
forms
or
of
artist
an
The gardener has to be something
objects.
and
sculptor
to visualize
the
right
shape needed, and he certainly needs to know the
growth habit of plants to force them into the desired
forms.
10.
How
were
arbors
created?
An arbor is
a
garden
shelter,
often
work but usually of wooden lattice work,
roses,
vines,
and
the
like
are
grown.
of
rustic
on which
Some
of
the
arbors in the Historic Area are richly detailed,
while
others
native
are
and
wisteria,
quite
simple.
trumpet vine,
vines:
the
Most
are
Virginia
planted
with
creeper,
like.
Very similar are the pleached arbors at the
and Wythe gardens.
Pleaching is a method of
pruning and training trees to produce a hedge - type
Palace
The
wall.
together,
removed,
trees are planted relatively close
the front and back side branches are
and the remaining branches form a tight,
close -knit
wall.
A pleached arbor
is
two rows
of
pleached
trees
The pleached beech
that are trained into an archway.
trees at the Palace form a covered walkway nearly one
The Palace pleached arbors have
hundred feet long.
no
frames
inside,
although when
the
arbor was
originally installed a wooden frame was needed in the
first few years for training.
The pleached arbor at the Wythe House
is very
The arbor is made of American hornbeam
The gardeners
and is formed over a wooden frame.
shear the arbor in midspring, and during the year
different.
they " knit -in" the twig growth as it gets long enough
to pull
inside.
hornbeam at
the
There
is
a
similar pleached arbor of
Red Lion garden.
�11.
What
is
an espalier?
An espalier is a plant trained to grow in a flat
plane
against
a
wall,
often in a symmetrical
pattern.
The plant may be grown directly against the wall or
on a trellis
in front of the wall.
While most
espaliers are fruit trees, they may be any ornamental
plant such as pyracantha,
12.
magnolia,
etc.
Why were fruit trees grown as espaliers?
The purpose of espaliered plants is to allow the
gardener to grow plants that might not otherwise be
hardy.
The idea here is that the wall the plant is
growing on will hold heat and protect the plant. Most
practically,
the wall does serve to protect the
blooms of the fruit trees during a late frost.
A similar technique is called cordon.
It
is
a
method of training fruit trees to grow a single main
stem and laterals from it that are usually trained
along parallel
wooden
supports.
Cordons
are
still
popular in England and Europe but virtually unknown
in the United States.
The purpose of
the cordon
is
to grow a full sized fruit tree in a compact form. At
the Palace garden you can see single cordons in the
vegetable garden and many double cordons
garden.
in the fruit
�Questions
Vol.
9,
No.
Answers
3
June
1988
to
tr
In this issue of Questions & Answers we asked Robin
Kipps and her staff at the Pasteur & Galt Apothecary to
share with us questions concerning eighteenth -century
health care.
1.
Under what conditions was bleeding performed?
Bleeding was done as a treatment
inflammatory fevers.
of when to bleed
is
by William Buchan,
The
found
most
for inflammation and
complete
description
in Domestic Medicine . . .
published
in 1774.
Bleeding is proper at the beginning of all
inflammatory fevers, as pleurisies, peripneumonies,
It is likewise proper in all topical
inflammations, as those of the intestines, womb,
bladder, stomach, kidnies, throat, eyes, & c.;
as
in the asthma, sciatic pains, coughs, head -achs,
c.
also
rheumatisms,
the apoplexy, epilepsy and bloody -flux.
After falls, blows, bruises, or any violent hurt
received either externally or internally, bleeding is
It is likewise necessary for persons who
have had the misfortune to be strangled, drowned,
suffocated with foul air, the fumes of metals, or the
necessary.
like."
2.
what is the eighteenth- century definition of
humours "?
The Galenic humoral concept ( dating from ancient
Greece)
stated
phlegm,
black bile,
invention of
century,
that
there were
four humors -- blood,
and yellow bile.
With
the
the microscope in the seventeenth
the definition of humors
changed.
Under
the
microscope, blood was seen to consist of many small
particles instead of being a homogeneous substance.
From this it was concluded that the previously known
four humors were just part of the blood, and blood
The definition
was the starting point of all humors.
of " humour"
in the Encyclopaedia Britannica for 1771
reads: "
HUMOUR,
in a general sense, denotes much the
same
with
liquid
or
fluid."
was considered a humor,
not just
Any fluid of the body
so there were many humors,
four.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
taiz
H
�2
3.
what is the difference between barber -surgeons and
surgeons?
When were they practicing?
The true
surgeon took care
as
amputation,
of
lips
removal
and noses.
He
of
of major operations
tumors,
also
and plastic
performed minor
operations such as tooth extraction,
and bone setting.
England
surgery
The barber -surgeon performed minor
operations.
In
such
a master
surgeons'
bloodletting,
guild was
organized
in
1368.
The Mystery or Guild of the Barbers of London was created
in
1462.
In 1540 the Guild of Surgeons joined the Company
In
of Barbers to form the United Barber- Surgeon Company.
the early eighteenth century, surgeons started to obtain
university training, which improved their reputation, and
they achieved social approval.
At the same time,
the
barber -surgeons declined in status and lost their medical
functions,
though some
continued
to pull
teeth.
In
1745
the barbers and surgeons officially separated.
surgeons are known to have been practicing in Williamsburg
No
after
4.
barber -
1730.
Some of our modern cosmetics and over -the - counter
medications contain ingredients used in eighteenth- century
medicine.
What are some of the more interesting
combinations?
Os - Cal tablets contain calcium carbonate from oyster shells
In the eighteenth
and are used as a dietary supplement.
century oyster
was mixed with
in burn cases.
Absorbine Jr.
shell were used to make lime water, which
linseed oil and used to prevent inflammation
contains absinthe oil,
counterirritant
which has
properties.
In the early eighteenth
century this oil was used to rid the system of worms and
for treating jaundice.
Vick' s VapoRub and Listerine contain thymol, which can be
made from thyme oil.
Thymol is antifungal and
antibacterial.
was
to
treat
One use of thyme oil in colonial pharmacy
toothaches.
Clinique Hair Shaper contains gum tragacanth.
Apothecaries
preferred this plant gum over others when making their
troches,
or
lozenges.
�3
5.
Were there any endemic diseases of note in the eighteenth
century?
The following observations come from A New and Complete
Dictionary of Arts and Sciences ( 1754),
It has always been observed,
Volume
Part
II,
1:
that people of particular
countries were peculiarly subject to particular diseases,
which are owing to their manner of living, or to the air
and
effluvia
of
the
earth
and
water."
Laplanders have often distempers
owing to their living in smoke,
of
the eyes,
which
is
or being blinded with the
snow."
In
England,
the people are " peculiarly afflicted with
catarrhs,
hoarseness,
coughs,
and the children with a
elsewhere,
which we
call
the
dysenteries and consumptions
disease scarce known
rickets."
The Dutch are peculiarly subject to the scurvy."
The Russians and Tartars are afflicted with ulcers made by
the
cold,
of
the
same
nature with what we call
chilblanes."
The people of Hungary " are more infested with lice and
fleas
In
6.
what
than any other people of
Constantinople
are
some
of
the
the
plague
the world."
always
rages."
modern prescription drugs
that
have
been developed from ingredients used in eighteenth- century
medicine?
Crystodigin - - tablet used for treating heart failure.
a
It
is derived from the plant digitalis.
Co1BENEMID --
tablets used to treat gouty arthritis.
contain colchicine
obtained
from
the
They
autumn crocus.
In
the
eighteenth century a syrup prepared from this plant was
used
to
treat
gout
on
a
limited
Quinidex Extentabs -- tablets
used
They contain quinidine sulfate,
cinchona
of
the
ineffective.
cinchona,
century.
as
a cardiac
which
depressant.
is prepared
from
trees.
Quinamm Sulfate
some
basis.
Capsules - -are
newer
synthetic
used
as
an antimalarial
antimalarials
when
prove
Quinine, another derivative extracted from
was prescribed for malaria in the eighteenth
�4
Cantharone - -a
It
topical liquid for removing certain types of
cantharidin, obtained from Spanish fly.
One of its colonial uses was in a tincture applied
topically to create blisters as a counterirritant.
warts.
7.
contains
what is the difference between smallpox inoculation and
vaccination?
Inoculation refers to the
introduction of
smallpox matter
into living tissue to produce a mild form of the disease
that is followed by immunity.
Vaccination
refers
to
a
suspension of weakened or dead microorganisms to achieve
In the case of smallpox, Dr. Edward Jenner used
immunity.
a
smallpox
relative,
vaccination comes
8.
cowpox,
from the
to impart immunity.
Latin vacca,
The
term
which means cow.
The definitions of words sometimes change with time.
Are
there any medical terms that we use today that had slightly
different meanings in the eighteenth century?
Contagion,
according to the 1771 Encyclopaedia Britannica,
the communicating a disease from one body to
is " in physic,
In some diseases it is only effected by an
another.
immediate contact or touch,
others,
and
in
as
the
venom
of
it is conveyed by infected cloaths,
others,
it
is
the
as
in
pox;
the
itch;
transmitted through the air at a
considerable distance, by means of steams or effluvia
expiring from the sick, as in the plague and other
pestilential
disorders,
in which case
the air is
said
to be
contagious."
Anesthesia,
according to Robert Hooper' s A Compendious
Medical Dictionary ( 1801)
A genus of disease in the
dysaethesiae of Cullen."
Antiseptics,
is " Loss
of
the
class locales,
sense
and
of
touch.
order
again quoting from Hooper' s 1801 work,
are
Those medicines which possess a power of preventing animal
substances from passing into a state of putrefaction,
of obviating putrefaction when already begun."
9.
and
Did people wear braces on their teeth in the eighteenth
century?
As
you
can
imagine,
teeth and
their appearance was
a major
concern not only in colonial America but throughout
history.
Pulling rotten or painful teeth was the usual
practice of dentistry or " tooth- drawing."
By 1757 a French
artist,
Etienne
teeth.
Sometimes made from metal strips,
Bourdet,
invented braces for straightening
braces were
�5
usually made of thin curved ivory bands sawn from pieces of
animal
what
The first bicuspids ( the teeth right behind
ivory.
we
call
the " canines ")
were pulled,
were placed on the front of the teeth,
the ivory bands
and fastened around
Gradually, over a period
the back molars with gold wires.
of weeks and months, the braces were tightened and
adjusted.
So,
for everyone in period clothing who also
wears braces, keep smiling!
10.
What were tooth transplants as performed in the eighteenth
century?
By the mid - eighteenth century tooth transplantation was the
sold
act of having one' s teeth pulled,
at
a
profit,
and
the
extracted tooth then immediately implanted into the open
socket
of
the
waiting
The
recipient.
recipient hoped
that
the gums and tissue would accept this foreign and very
so the tooth would stay in the mouth
unsterilized object,
and adapt
Was
this
to
its new
surroundings.
Well,
successful?
John
Hunter
thought
He
so.
was
a Scotsman, famous for his excellent commonsense approach
to medical ideas, and is sometimes still referred to today
Because of his good
as the father of modern surgery.
reputation, when Hunter suggested moving a tooth from one
person' s
jawbone
Even though the
to
another' s,
idea died out
parties were the thing to do.
the whole
in
time,
world
tooth
Apparently,
took
notice.
transplanting
people
right
here in Williamsburg engaged in this activity.
Advertisements in a 1769 Virginia Gazette list a Dr. Baker,
who offered this service at his place of business ( now the
site
11.
of
the
When was
Roscow
the
Cole
toothbrush
House).
invented?
According to the Dental Student ( April 1976)
and
the
British Dental Association, the first " modern looking"
toothbrush was invented in 1780 by William Addis of
England. (
Clerkenwall,
toothbrush
of
some
sort
The Chinese had developed a
in the fifteenth century.)
Apparently a tanner by trade, Addis found time on his hands
while living as a political refugee in the home of another
tanner.
Whittling on a piece of bone one day, he came up
with the
idea of
the
toothbrush.
He drilled holes
in one
end of the bone handle and put into the holes hairs from
the
tail
1900s,
of
a
cow.
Bone handles were used until
the early
and the bristles were commercially obtained from
Russian and Asian boars.
�6
Before Addis' s
to
a
small
invention,
rags,
sponges (
sometimes
attached
stick),
or sticks with chewed, frayed ends were
Sometimes a person used his own fingers for
There are references to " toothbrushes" in
brushing.
used.
eighteenth- century Williamsburg records.
12
What
were
tooth
powders?
Many multipurpose household products were suitable for
cleansing the teeth, as were specialty items sold in a
variety of stores and shops in the eighteenth century.
According to a very popular home remedy and beauty book,
the Toila de Flora,
cinnamon,
chalk,
published
charcoal,
in London in 1794,
sulfur,
ingredient found in a dragon palm tree)
were mixed together
into
several
ground
and dragon' s blood ( an
were used alone or
different combinations.
sodium nitrate, which is
According to the Toila de Flora,
still used today as fertilizer, was the best bleach and
It' s interesting to note that this source
discouraged swallowing after cleaning the teeth with sodium
whitener. (
nitrate.)
CORRECTION:
We have been asked to clarify the answer about
catalpa trees on Palace Green from the April
Questions &
1)
the
Thomas
rows
1988 issue of
Answers.
Jefferson noted on his ca.
of
trees
100
f.
apart,"
1779 drawing of
the Palace
but he did not say what kind
2)
Trees are indicated on the Frenchman' s
of trees they were. (
3)
Map of 1782. (
General de Lauberdiere' s July 1782 journal
entry mentions the " very fine palace built at the extremity of a
handsome street planted with catalpas."
De Lauberdiere' s is the
first statement we have as to the kind of trees.
During the
restoration,
both sides
of
catalpa trees were replanted 100
Palace
Green.
feet apart along
�Answers
Questions
l
Vol.
9,
No.
4
August
1988
In this issue of Questions and Answers we have
collected
a
number
of
miscellaneous
questions.
We hope
they will be of interest to you.
1.
Who escorted the accused from county to county to
Williamsburg? Was it the sheriff or deputy of the
county where
the
crime
Or
took place?
did
one of
them take the alleged criminal to the county line
where the sheriff or deputy of the next county took
over?
Did the sheriff or deputy have to be at the
trial?
Whites
accused
of
felonies,
crimes were committed or where
no matter where
their
they were apprehended,
were brought to Williamsburg to be tried before the
General Court.
After being taken into custody and
undergoing both a preliminary hearing and an
court ( " Called
examining
Court "),
the
accused
was
remanded to the county jail
if the local officials
still
suspect
considered him or her
and thought he or
she should be tried by the General Court. (
prisoners,
however,
Some
were allowed out on bail.)
Two
of the county justices prepared a mittimus committing
the accused to the care of the Public Gaoler
The local sheriff had the
Williamsburg.
in
responsibility for transporting the prisoner to
Williamsburg,
but usually he appointed a deputy to
actually accompany the accused to the capital city.
Sometimes the justices also created another document,
called
a
precept,
that made the journey to
Williamsburg much easier and more secure; it
empowered the sheriff or deputy to impress, in any
county through which he passed, men, horses, or boats
if he deemed them necessary for the safe conveyance
of
his prisoner.
Arriving in Williamsburg,
the
county official delivered his charge to the Public
Gaoler and then notified the clerk of the General
Court
of
the
commitment
and
charge.
Because
of
the
paperwork created by local officials, which was
transferred to General Court officials, county
sheriffs did not usually have to attend General Court
trials.
A Si- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�2
2.
Once the General Court gave out a sentence ( other than the
death sentence),
who administered the punishment?
Where
did punishments like branding and flogging take place?
It is impossible to give a definite answer to this
question because of the lack of General Court records,
but
it seems that the Public Gaoler often did the branding in
open
Whippings
court.
were
administered
at
the
public
whipping post ( probably in the ravine below the old James
but
City County courthouse),
it
is not known who laid on
the
lashes. (
the
Public Gaoler burned him or her in the hand
If a felon was granted benefit of clergy,
In this case,
court.
in open
the burning was not a punishment but
a permanent sign that he or she had once received
privilege and been exempted from punishment.)
3.
Who
collected
fines
and
where?
this
Where did fines end up - - in
the county or colony treasury?
Specific use of fines collected was determined by
Fines set by the General Court were collected by
the sheriff of York County, who turned them in to the
statute.
colony' s Receiver -General.
The York County sheriff was
allowed to keep a percentage of the fines he collected as
part of
4.
his
income.
In cases where benefit of clergy was claimed,
Bible
verse ( Psalm
Yes.
51)
referred
to
as
was the
the " neck
verse "?
the
According to the Oxford English Dictionary,
term was
in use from 1450
until
1872.
But
it
is
important
to keep perspective on this term and the whole issue of
benefit of clergy.
Benefit of clergy did not require
reading after 1732 in Virginia ( or in England after 1706),
so
that
the " neck verse"
significance
became
of
antiquarian
thereafter.
The benefit was largely a legal
fiction that enabled judges to mitigate the severity of
the penal
laws
to the extent
that crimes otherwise
considered felonies had not been made non - clergyable by
statute.
5.
Is it true that during the colonial period a pass was
required for anyone to leave the colony?
In the
1748 revision of Virginia
laws
there
is
a
law
requiring passes for all those traveling by ship out of
Land
the colony. (
travel
between
Specifically,
mentioned.)
responsibility
of
ships'
the
colonies is not
law makes it the
captains
to
investigate
passengers and verify that they had suitable passes.
law sought
servants,
to control
and
slaves.
the
movements
The would -be
of
fugitives,
This
debtors,
traveler acquired his
�3
pass from the Secretary of the colony or from one of the
Secretary' s deputies ( usually or always the clerk of the
county
The
courts).
throughout most
6.
of
fee
the
for
such
a
pass
was
ten
shillings
eighteenth century.
Did the same jury sit for every trial held in the General
Court or was a new jury selected for each trial?
Two
each
types
of
juries - grand and petit - were
-
required
for
The grand jury for the General Court met
trial.
early in the session and dealt with indictments,
informations,
for
that
and
other
session or
for
The trial or petit
When the prisoner was
process
of
the
crown.
It
served
that year.
juries
were different for each case.
the
delivered to the Public Gaol,
clerk of the General Court issued a writ summoning a jury.
By law the members of the jury had to be freeholders from
the
area where
If
committed.
the
crime
those
was
alleged to have been
summoned were unavoidably detained or
were challenged and found unfit for jury service, the
of the jury could be made up of " good and lawful
freeholders of the by standers" from any part of
Williamsburg or within a half mile radius of the town.
7.
J
rest
Do we have any record of a person being banished from the
colony of Virginia for a crime committed during the
eighteenth
Various
century?
colonial
Virginia
colony an alternative
laws
to capital
made banishment
punishment.
from
Despite
the
the
possibility,
there is no evidence that anyone was banished
during the eighteenth century.
County courts did not have
the power to banish free persons ( only the General Court
could,
and there
are
few records
for
that
court).
Naturally I have not read every eighteenth -century record
from every Virginia county, but I cannot find a single
case of banishment in the eighteenth century. ( During the
seventeenth century several of Bacon' s men were
to banishment
for
treason.)
sentenced
�There
Ifs
is no Volume
9 Number
5
�Questions
Vol.
9,
Answers
6
NO.
August
ISSUE
SPECIAL
1988
o
y
The
issue
special
Questions
of
in
is
Answers
and
H
response to the many questions about Colonial
These questions
Williamsburg' s new program " Cry Witch. "
are
partly
because
history
colonial
the
because there is
witchcraft cases
not
entered
the
cast
cleared with
were
The
the
success
for
x
no
two years before
continued
during
rehearsals,
assistance
of
of
partly
there were
Research
numbers
facts
department.
that
period
a
and
rt
researched
of
1706,
interpret,
belief
production.
assistance
in
set
normally
a widespread
in Virginia.
The program was
actually
is
program
do
we
of
the program
the
is
it
with
the
a
and
research
due
to
the
excellent and willing cooperation of both the cast and the
research
4111
1.
department.
C
Were there really witchcraft cases
Yes
there
recorded
Contrary to
were.
did
Devil
Colonial
visit
case
of
in Virginia?
popular
Virginia. "
witchcraft
belief,
The
in British
The
"
first
North America
originated in Surry County and was tried by the
General
Court
Goodwife
happened
to
at
Joan
her
Jamestown
Wright,
be
left- handed
a
of
neighbors
in September 1626.
an unfortunate woman who
midwife,
This
witchcraft.
practicing
just
was accused by
apparently caused quite a commotion in Surry County.
2.
Was
anyone
ever
executed
in Virginia because
of
witchcraft?
Due
to
incomplete
However,
sure.
never
any
court
records,
evidence
we will never be
that there were
indicates
court- sanctioned
In
executions.
1654
a
Captain Bennett executed a woman named Kath Grady as
his
ship
docked
at
Virginia
approached
Jamestown,
Bennett
waters.
was
When his
called
to
ship
appear
before the Vice Admiralty Court to account for his
actions.
This
case
came
under Virginia' s
jurisdiction only because Jamestown was the captain' s
next
port
A Bi-
of
call .
Monthly Publication
of the
Department
of
Interpretive Education
�2
3.
Do we know of any other convictions?
Yes,
and this is the only case where the accused was
severely.
In 1656 in Northumberland County
punished
a
David
minister,
of
twenty- four
Lindsaye,
accused William Harding
etc. "
soccery,
An able jury of
found against the accused, and the
" witchcraft,
men
court ordered that Harding receive ten stripes upon
his bare back and be forever banished from the
He
county.
was
to
depart
months and was required
within
the
space
of
two
charges
to pay all
of
the
court.
4.
How
common
colonial
in
belief
the
was
the
in
supernatural
Virginia?
In the seventeenth century belief in witchcraft and
the supernatural was inevitable in any English
Virginia
and
society,
no
was
In
exception.
the
eighteenth century Virginians and Englishmen appear
to
have
been
more
enlightened
their
still
considered
Wesley,
as
late
capital
a
founder
the
witchcraft
5.
As
superstitions.
late
as
1736
the
to
cast
off
witchcraft
was
in Virginia.
offense
Methodism,
of
as
and began
preached
John
against
1770s.
How historically accurate is the Colonial
Williamsburg
program
"
Cry Witch"?
Witch"
is based on the story of Grace Sherwood,
Virginia' s only known witchcraft case in the
Cry
We do not know if this
century.
the General Court.
Acting as
eighteenth
heard
ever
is
part
the
of
time
certain
based
by
our
frame
facts
heavily
dramatic
of
the
for
on
essential
it was
We have considered
added or subtracted
court
the
but
the
records.
program
is
program
is
Indeed,
our
that
certain
records were destroyed during the Civil
These
War.
and
playability,
biggest problem with
if
was
license.
case
extant
case
gaps
had
Witch
conjecture.
or
to
be
filled
Grace
not,
in with
Sherwood
educated
was
a
real
person who was prosecuted in eighteenth- century
Even today there are reminders of her in
Virginia.
Princess
can
Anne
Witch
County,
travel
still
Duck
Pond,
now
called
down Witch
Duck
Virginia
Road,
Beach.
which
the very same route taken by Grace
Sherwood on her way to be tested to determine her
guilt
or
One
leads
innocence.
to
�3
For
further
reading,
Richard
Beale
Carson
Davis,
Hudson
" The
recommends:
Devil
in Virginia
Eighteenth
Century, " Virginia Magazine of
Biography,
LXV
Carol
F.
Karlsin,
Witchcraft
Norton,
II/
( 1957 ) ,
in
1987 ) .
The
Colonial
pp.
Devil
New
in
the
History and
131- 149.
in
the
England
Shape
(New
of
Woman
York:
W.
W.
�Questions
Vol.
9.
Nti • 61-
7
NO.
Answers
October
1988
During this election year many of our visitors will be
thinking of themselves as voters and about the way their own
communities
are
governed.
In
this
questions about qualifications
issue we have
answered
for voting and how and where
the elecions took place in eighteenth -century Virginia.
1.
Who was eligible to vote
in Virginia
in the eighteenth
century?
LT]
Suffrage was granted only to free white males,
and
over,
who
met
certain
other
age
21
nn
qualifications.
Women could not vote. Indians and Negroes, whether
free or slave, were disenfranchised. The Virginia
election laws did not mention religion except to
require
that
qualified
Quakers make
r+
0
n
affirmation
before voting.
2.
What were
the other qualifications
for enfranchisement?
j
So
far as
free white adult males were concerned,
franchise requirements were not very exclusive.
Freeholders
could vote who owned ( or had
a
lifetime
lease to) either 25 acres with a house and plantation
or a house and part of a lot in a town.
There were
other additional ways to qualify as a voter.
Freeholders
with land
that
did not
conform to
regulations and men owning no land at all
if they hadme50 visible property (
In
possessions).
addition,
male
cash
or
heads
of
these
could vote
households
in Williamsburg and Norfolk who had served five year
apprenticeships in a trade in either of those towns
could vote.
Everyone eligible to vote may not have
exercised that right, but it cannot be said that a
large mass of free adult white males was
disenfranchised in colonial Virginia.
3.
How were
elections
ordered?
The first step in the election of burgesses was the
issuance of a writ from the governor ordering an
election.
The writ was
directed to
was returnable by the date (
later)
indicated in the
usually
document.
the time for holding the election,
the
sheriff,
and
six
or
weeks
The
sheriff
with
time
and
place were
sent
it
decided
usually several weeks
in the future and on a county court day.
writ
eight
Copies
of
the
to parish ministers
and to readers of the churches and chapels in the county.
It was their duty to announce this information each
gnnday until
plpr•tinn day.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�4.
Were voters
registered before
Voters were not
elections?
registered before
elections,
and
there were
no officials to turn unqualified men away from the polling
place; however, the sheriff could refuse to take the vote of
a man whom he knew to be disqualified, and each candidate had
the right to challenge any voter and to require that he swear
that he met
5.
the
legal
requirements.
Were elections held in a special
room in courthouses?
The election was usually held in the courtroom,
though
sometimes in good weather it was moved out to the courthouse
green.
sat
Activity centered around the clerk' s table.
the
Behind
it
sheriff,
usually flanked by several of the ranking
justices of the county, and at the extreme ends sat the
candidates.
6.
Were there set times for polls to open and close?
When the sheriff thought that all was in readiness,
which was
likely to be mid -morning after most of the voters had time to
assemble,
ordered
he opened the election by reading the writ that had
the
election.
When the
sheriff
decided
that
all
of
the freeholders present had voted in an election, he went to
the door of the courthouse and called out three times:
Gentlemen freeholders come
or
the poll
will
be closed."
into court, and give your votes,
The decision to close the polls
was
solely the sheriff' s.
Voters usually knew the outcome
before starting back to their homes.
7.
How were votes
recorded?
Before the voting began, each clerk wrote at the top of a
sheet
of paper the name
of his
candidate.
The
paper
was
ruled and the lines numbered so that one could tell at any
moment in the election exactly how many votes each candidate
had.
8.
When were the names of the successful candidates submitted to the
House
of
Burgesses?
After the election,
certificate
the sheriff attached to the writ a
containing
the
names
and transmitted these documents
of
those who had been elected
The Committee of
to the house.
Privileges and Elections examined these papers and reported its
findings to the house.
9.
Were all members of the House of Burgesses from the
gentry?
In colonial Virginia,
as
in England,
the
elected
members
of
the legislature in the eighteenth century came mostly from
families of the gentry.
But
some
were of
middle -class
origin, men who had accumulated ample estates or had risen
through the learned professions into the upper class.
In a
few instances, former indentured servants and other men of
rude beginnings ultimately became substantial planters and
obtained a seat
in the House of Burgesses.
there was always a sprinkling of
Consequently,
somewhat less
burgesses from the frontier counties.
sophisticated
�Questions
Vol.
9,
No.
Answers
8
December
We have limited this month' s
issue of Questions &
Answers
to one question on dueling because this interesting
subject required a lengthy explanation rather than a short
response.
Q.
Was dueling legal in colonial Virginia?
A.
Dueling was not
legal
in Virginia.
Fighting the duel
and its consequences were punishable by law.
neither party was
injured,
Even
if
the participants could have
been arrested for taking part in an affray. ( An affray is
defined as the fighting of two or more persons in a public
place, "
to the terror of his majesty' s subjects. ")
party was injured,
If
a
the other party could have been
arrested for the misdemeanor.
If one of the parties was
killed, the other party was guilty of murder, a felony by
statute.
In both George Webb' s The Office and Authority of A
Justice of the Peace, published in Williamsburg in 1736,
and in Richard Starke' s The Virginia Justice, the
principle was clearly set forth, that to kill a man in a
duel was murder.
Starke also quoted the following portion
of William Hawkins' s A Treatise of
the
Pleas of
the Crown
1724):
But the law so far abhors all Duelling in cold
Blood,
That not only the Principal who actually
kills the other, but also his Seconds are guilty
of Murder, whether they fought or not; and some
have gone so far as to hold, That the Seconds of
the Person killed are also equally guilty, in
respect of that Countenance which they give to
their
Principals
Purpose,
in the
execution of
their
by accompanying them therein,
and being
ready to bear a Part with them . . .
Thus until the Revolution taking part in a duel was
punishable by law in Virginia.
challenge was
Even the
issuing of a
a punishable offense.
In July 1775 the Convention of Delegates for Virginia
passed an ordinance for the raising and regulating of a
military force.
Article XI
reads
as
follows:
No officer or soldier shall use any reproachful
or provoking
speeches
or
gestures
to
another,
nor shall presume to send a challenge to any
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
1988
�person
to
fight
a
duel;
and
whosoever
shall
knowingly and willingly suffer any person
whatsoever to go
forth to fight a duel,
second,
or carry any
promote,
be deemed as
officer,
or
refusing
a
as
a
of
those
at
the
a principal;
soldier,
challenger;
or
and
such
all
also be
such
cases,
a
or
shall
shall
whatsoever
upbraid
shall
like
discretion of
and
shall
challenge,
challenge,
another
offenders,
shall
general
for
considered
in any
be punished
court martial.
This law pertained to the military but not to the
general
It
public.
is
important
to emphasize
that
the
proliferation of dueling in the South was largely a post There is little evidence of
Revolutionary phenomenon.
dueling in colonial Virginia.
The Virginia Gazette gives
ample
press
coverage
to duels
in Europe and England,
general,
fought
elsewhere,
especially
and to the subject of dueling in
but the only Virginia duel to appear in the
surviving
issues of
the Gazette
is
the abortive duel
between Dr. Arthur Lee and Mr. James Mercer that was to be
fought near Williamsburg in 1767.
It doesn' t seem likely
that the illegality of dueling kept it out of the papers
because Mercer and Lee took up several columns of several
Gazettes in vituperative accusations of cowardice when
each went to the appointed place and failed to find the
other. (
It is apparent from the accounts given that the
participants each went to the place at a different day and
time.)
Thus there is very little evidence of dueling here
in contemporary documents.
NOTE:
It
has been a while since we have received questions from
our interpreters.
When questions do come up during
breakroom discussions,
please jot them down on a piece of
paper and
Jane
send
House or call
them to
her on Ext.
Strauss
7619.
at the
Greenhow Lumber
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 9, 1988
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/35e61408a696a0857c5aaa82913c9b63.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=gxhmIqqQKTxFPh1eqXhfKEu2XAX-ecvgulYY4acAJKw0LBdvrztMY3fmSNPzJILDyKn%7EIpyEKzlzCzmD78W9zi%7ERzAxeFY6zomSBG46g4RTyY8rS7V8YXdLIHQwNCqLg5qGfnp4CdFFuAhMr9k460BTUTIlY4865KSF25ySLG2A3%7EEeRTaRqCMzQswqB1-VfirnYbDzGOMoZBIzWUus-JXQwcob5qf9nxg5mAlI8Abpk2UYUpkPx9BNiPCC%7EjVuT-xSiith-eaoaMM3a68jVREl3t-6Qm9mChbeVenqCkgGM8Ez1BT39rMgfRTnqfIRTmj-z1aOooWCVpueoDKXBZQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
945dfda599ce9b085d03ed850c087847
PDF Text
Text
5)
Questions
Vol.
8,
No .
The
Answers
1
next
February
six
issues
of
Questions
PAMPHLET FILE
1987
cdr)
and
Answers
will
focus on some critical stage of the development of the
The following topics are scheduled to
Constitution.
appear
in
this
'
Ft
a H,
order:
RECORD '
COPY , r.
01'#
wit_
February:
Time
April:
The
Line
of
the
Constitutional
E
rn
y
Period
m
SF
m
tJ
Imperial
Notions
of
Constitution
the
and
Constitution
-
British
oo
Dennis
D
O' Toole
to
g
June:
Virginia' s Revolutionary Government;
focus
August:
Life
on
Virginia
Under
-
Kevin Kelly
the Articles
of Confederation
John Selby
October:
The Movement
for Constitutional
the
Prespective
Virginia
-
J.
Reform;
Douglas
Smith
December:
The
Philadelphia
Document
A Bi- Monthly Publication
Convention;
Resulted
of the
Department
that
of
What
Talk
Interpretive Education
i
�Time Line of the
Constitutional Period
1774
September
October
5-
26
The first Continental Congress met in
Philadelphia.
colonies
October
18
except
Each of the thirteen
Georgia sent delegates.
The Continental Congress
created
Continental
which
enforce
a
Association,
complete
the
was
to
boycott of British
commerce unless Parliament repealed the
Intolerable Acts by September 1 ,
1775 .
1775
February
9
Parliament declared that a
rebellion
ordered
19
April
existed
additional
After
Paul
April
18 ,
state of
in Massachusetts
troops
to
and
Boston.
Revere' s midnight ride on
Middlesex
County (
Mass. )
minutemen met British troops at
Lexington.
Later that day at Concord
the
shot
fired,
heard
round
the
world"
was
signaling the beginning of armed
conflict between the colonies
and
the
Crown.
May
10
The
in
June
15
second Continental Congress convened
Philadelphia.
George Washington of Virginia became
Commander in Chief of the Continental
Army.
1776
January 9
Thomas Paine' s pro- independence
pamphlet,
Common
Sense,
was
published
in
Philadelphia.
May 6
The Virginia Convention at Williamsburg
adopted
May 15
the declaration
The Virginia
Convention
of
Rights.
adopted
a
resolution instructing the colony' s
delegates
motion
for
in Congress to introduce a
independence.
2
�June
7
Congress
In
at
Philadelphia,
Virginia
delegate Richard Henry Lee introduced a
the
calling for independence,
and the
foreign alliances,
resolution
formation
creation
after
June
The
29
of
of
a
plan
of
confederation
independence was
Virginia
achieved.
Convention
adopted
a
for
the
" Commonwealth
adopted
the
Lee
constitution
of
Virginia. "
Congress
July 2
resolution
for
independence.
Thomas
July 4
Jefferson' s
Declaration
of
Independence as amended by Congress was
approved and signed by John Hancock.
December
1212
With British successes in the New Jersey
campaign threatening Philadelphia,
Congress fled to the safety of
Baltimore.
December
25/ 26
General
River
Washington
and
Jersey,
surprise
crossed
defeated
the
the
Delaware
New
Trenton,
to
Pennsylvania
from
Hessians
in
a
attack.
1777
October
17
British
Major
surrendered
New
York.
France
to
recognize
independence
valuable
December
19
George
General
John
Burgoyne
5 , 700 troops at Saratoga,
The British defeat prompted
and
American
render
the
new
nation
aid.
Washington
led
the
Continental
Army into winter quarters at Valley
Forge.
Of 10, 000 troops,
only 7, 500
survived
to
break
camp
on
June
18,
1778 .
1778
February 6
France
agreed
to
a
commercial
and
military alliance with the United
States.
June
17
Congress
at
rejected Britain' s
reconciliation.
3
final
effort
�June
28
At
the
Battle
Charles
Lee' s
misbehavior
Monmouth,
of
General
disobedience
led
to his
and
court- martial
on
July 4 .
1779
June
21
Spain declared war on Great Britain as
co- belligerent with France but refused
to recognize American independence.
September
13
John
Paul
Bonhomme
Jones ,
in
Richard,
command
took
the
of the
British
warship Serapis after defiantly
answering
demand
a
to
surrender
with
"I
have not yet begun to fight. "
1780
September
25
Benedict Arnold fled to a
warship after the capture
Andre exposed his plot to
American fortress at West
British
of Major John
turn over the
Point to Crown
forces.
1781
March
2
The
Continental
Congress was
succeeded
by " The United States Congress
Assembled"
as empowered by the Articles
of Confederation ratified the day
before.
October
19
British General Charles Cornwallis
surrendered to General George Washington
and the French commander Comte de
Rochambeau
at
Yorktown,
Virginia.
1782
February
27
The
House
of Commons
voted
against
further prosecution of the war.
September
27
Benjamin
Jay began
Great
Franklin,
John
Adams ,
and
John
formal peace negotiations with
Britain
4
in Paris.
�a
1783
3
September
The
Treaty
formally ending the
Paris,
of
War,
Revolutionary
It
signed.
was
was
ratified by Congress on January 14,
1784 .
1784
Congress
23
April
accepted
system to divide
them as
states on equal
thirteen
original
never
the
of
23
into
put
as
December
Thomas
basis
lands
the
and
admit
footing with the
Although
states.
this
effect,
for
Jefferson' s
western
plan
Northwest
served
1787 .
Ordinance
Congress designated New York City the
temporary national capital.
1785
July-
November
Diplomatic
the
difficulties
formerly
included
right
boundary
the
to passage
River,
and
Great
occupation
of
on
continued
of
the
the
Florida,
Mississippi
Britain' s
western
among
Problems
powers.
warring
continued
forts.
1786
The Virginia legislature adopted Thomas
Jefferson' s Statute for Religious
16
January
Freedom
( first
rejected
as
the
August
7
In
a model
proposed
that
at
for
time) .
the
first
in
1779
It
but
later
served
amendment
to
Constitution.
Congress,
Charles Pinckney of South
Carolina
moved
Articles
of
motions
for
a
revision
Confederation,
were
never
of
but
submitted
to
the
the
the
states.
September
11- 14
Delegates
from five
states met
Annapolis,
Maryland,
convention
to meet
and
called
in
for
in Philadelphia
a
in
May 1787 for the purpose of revising the
Articles
of
Confederation.
5
�November
23
Virginia authorized the election
delegates to the Convention at
of
Philadelphia.
December
August
4
1786-
February 1787
Virginia
delegates
elected.
Massachusetts
farmer Daniel
a
which
mob
action,
Shays '
Rebellion.
followers,
the
Shays
and
led
as
his
had
militia,
tax
paper
money,
laws.
debtor
Shays
known
who were finally subdued by
Massachusetts
more
became
relief,
demanded
and
pro-
1787
February
21
Congress
called
the
Constitutional
Convention.
May
25
The
Constitutional
Philadelphia.
Rhode
Island
Washington
Convention
Eventually all
in
states but
George
attended.
was
opened
elected
President
of
the
Convention.
May 29
The
Virginia
Randolph,
Articles
Plan,
proposed by Edmund
went beyond revising the
and
called
for
a
new
national
government.
June
15
William
Paterson'
alternative
Articles
more
July
13
of
powers
Congress
that
to
New
s
Jersey
Randolph'
Confederation
to
an
but
the
retained
states.
passed the
provided
Plan,
revised
s ,
for
Northwest Ordinance
the
admission
of
new
states on an equal footing with the
original
July
16
thirteen
colonies.
The Connecticut Compromise resolved
convention' s deadlock over
representation in the new Congress,
the
creating a bicameral legislature
representing the individual states
Senate)
August
6
The
the
and
Committee
draft
of
population
Detail
constitution
6
to
(
House)
submitted
the
.
a
Convention.
�17
September
i
Debate
in
the
ended.
drafted
by
by
adopted
Edmund
Constitutional
28
Congress
transmitted
sign)
the
Constitution
to
states.
Seeking to persuade New Yorkers to
27
began to
publish their
published
as
85
carefully
which were
essays ,
crafted
and John Jay
Madison,
James
Hamilton,
Alexander
Constitution,
the
ratify
The
31
Virginia
called
3- 31
Virginia
later
Federalist.
elected
October
was
Virginians
and George Mason
and submitted to
to
the
October
(with
body
Randolph
refusing
Congress.
September
Morris ,
Gouverneur
that
Convention
largely
Constitution,
The
a
state
convention.
1788
March
delegates
to
a
state
convention.
June
2- 27
The Virginia
June
21
With
Convention held.
the
state,
New
by
ratification
ninth
the
Hampshire ,
Constitution
became
effective and thereby replaced the
Articles
Twelve
Confederation.
of
however,
amendments,
were
suggested
during the ratification process
awaited
June
Virginia
25
to
79)
later
September
further
13 ,
part
set
dates
President
and
Constitution
the
proposed
became
Congress
the
ratified
and
and
attention.
amendments
of
the
for
Bill
the
(
89
that
of
Rights.
election
Vice President
and
of
for
the convening of the first Congress in
New York City.
December
23
Maryland
ceded
government
ten
to
the
new
national
square miles
of
land
along the Potomac River for the site of
the
future capital
7
city.
�1789
March
4
Under the authority of the Constitution,
the
first
gathered
City,
April
6
session
at
of
Federal
although
the
first
Hall
without
George Washington was
a
in
Congress
New York
quorum.
elected
President
by a unanimous vote of the electors.
April
30
George Washington
and
John
Adams were
inaugurated in New York City as the
first President and Vice President of
the
The
July 27
United
Department
renamed
States.
the
established
department.
of
State
March
August
7
22,
The War
as
the
Foreign
first
(
soon
was
executive
Though appointed Secretary
did
not
26,
take
Thomas
office
until
1790 .
Department was
Henry Knox
Affairs
Department)
September
on
Jefferson
of
State
established.
later became the
first
secretary.
September
2
The Department of the Treasury was
Alexander
established.
Hamilton
later
became the first secretary.
September
9
The House of Representatives recommended
twelve amendments to the Constitution.
The ten ratified in 1791 became our Bill
of
September
24
Rights.
Congress passed the Federal Judiciary
Act organizing the Supreme Court and
creating the federal judicial system.
September
26
George Washington appointed John Jay the
first Chief Justice of the
Court.
8
Supreme
�Vol.
8.
NO.
April
2
QUESTIONS
The
British
and
AND
Consti
1987
ANSWERS
ution in England
America before
1176
By Dennis O' Toole
Q.
You
speak
of
British
a"
hut
constitution."
Great
Britain
Beyer really had a written constitution like we have
today.
A.
did
she?
You' ve
just asked
a very
We
American sort of question.
find it difficult to conceive of a time when there wasn' t
a
fundamental
law,
written on
paper
for
all
to see,
standing above and controlling our government in behalf of
our
rights
and
But
liberty.
that' s
how
it
was
before
1776.
Q.
A.
Wasn' t
there
an
unwritten
constitution.
though?
No one on either side of the Atlantic doubted
was
such
it,
indeed,
Magna
a
as " the
thing
was
to
be
There
Carta.
found
was
opinions - were
part
of
in
that there
Much
constitution."
written documents
though,
as
disagreement,
documents - - laws,
other
British
proclamations,
charters,
the
such as
to which
court
Moreover,
constitution.
of
there
existed a large body of unwritten principles that were
assumed
to
be
part
of
confusion,
there was
extent
Americans,
the
constitutional
the
much
as
Adding to the
constitution.
disagreement concerning to what
were even entitled to
colonists,
protections.
Q.
Can you summarize what the key differences were hetweep
B.ngl' sh and American views of the British constitution°
A.
To use
a
distinction historian Jack
there
developed,
views
of
the
emerged "
British
Greene
P.
metropolitan"
constitution.
metropolitan center of the empire,
and "
has
peripheral"
In Great Britain,
the view emerged
the
in the
eighteenth century that the Parliament of Great Britain
made
sole
up
Lords,
king,
governmental
expanding
law,
of
and
global
hence,
constitutional"
and
Commons)
power throughout
empire.
by
Its
law
implication,
and
what
was
it
was
the
supreme
the kingdom and its
superseded
determined
all
other
what
not.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
was
and
�On
the
periphery
Britain' s
of
American
understanding
the
empire,
colonies,
developed
a
during
in
Ireland
quite
and
then
in
different
the eighteenth
century.
This view held that Englishmen abroad enjoyed by
birthright
thg same privileges and liberties as did
home,
especially the right to govern their
own affairs and to be taxed only by their own elected
representatives.
And these rights,
according to exponents
of this view,
had been confirmed by charters of government
and sanctified by custom and long use.
According to
Englishmen
at
Americans who
Great Britain
formulated this view,
the Parliament of
was supreme within Great Britain and,
by
customary usage,
the empire.
But
as "
had
authority
its
attempts
unconstitutional"
of
rather
than
one "
supreme
and
that
these
their
mutual
regulate
tax
usurpations
implication
Empire,
this
to
to
view
was
power.
there
legislative"
several
allegiance
of
that
to
the
trade
Americans
were
within
centers
were
within
were
One
seen
important
several
the
British
united only
by
crown.
Q.
What events caused tyhprAn,plo- Amerlean diA4gree1
the Briti„
aj7__N,9riatbtkt_
b,4lle9 erupt?
A.
The short answer to that is Great Britain' s victory over
France
in the
conclusion in
are
and
DI —
RXIr
Years'
War,
which was brought to a
It was a world war,
1763.
and
world
wars
expensive.
Great Britain had a huge debt to pay off
a huge new chunk of North America to defend and
control
as
a
Seven
result
of
her
triumph.
The Stamp Act of 1765
was designed by Lord Grenville' s administration to raise
revenues from the king' s American subjects to apply toward
relieving Great Britain' s pressing fiscal
Americans
were
quick
to
point
Parliament had ever attempted
American
subjects.
out,
out
own
with
view
needs.
was
the
But,
first
as
time
to tax directly the crown' s
The gauntlet
each side then worked
justification for its
this
thus
being thrown down,
remarkable speed
of the British
its
constitution.
Q.
What
roles
dSd
Virgini
and_ Yarzinians
alstias
cons titutiona7.__ b_,
g_ atg?
A.
Virginia, along with Massachusetts, played the leading
The Virginia
roles politically and intellectually.
Assembly, in its December 1764 petition to the king
against the proposed stamp duties, claimed for Virginians
the " ancient and inestimable Right of being governed by
such Laws respecting their
internal
are
Consent."
derived
from
their
own
Polity and Taxation as
The
following May
the House of Burgesses adopted Patrick Henry' s resolutions
declaring the Stamp Act to be contrary to " British
2
�freedom"
to
be
The
the
and "
ancient
constitution"
constitutional
principles
resistance to
compellingly articulated
Bland' s
Jefferson.
The
behind
Colonel
Di
published just two months before
the king in 1764, states that it
as
Birthright"
a
therefore
not
our
law "
own
such
Englishmen
as
is
be "
the
governed
he
was
petitioned
colonists'
by
laws
allowed,
made
might
make
EXTERNAL
the colony' s]
law " respecting our
any
and
which
Assembly
respects [
but
government,"
to
ted,
mo
the
Parliament,
consent."
Virginia' s - -
Parliamentary taxation were
by Richard Bland and Thomas
America' s --
with
and
obeyed.
internal
polity
which may hereafter be imposed on us by act of Parliament
is
arbitrary,
as
depriving us
of
and
our rights,
may
be
opposed."
A
decade
Thomas
to
after Bland
Jefferson
wrote
and
his
first
made
the Assembly
petitioned,
substantive
contribution
the unfolding
constitutional debate and to American
Read first in manuscript by a
gathering of Virginia' s political leaders at Peyton
Randolph' s house,
then printed in Williamsburg in August
political
thought.
1774
the
with
British
and
A
Summary
this
merica,
distinction
Bland
title
radical
between
others
external
had
legislatures
were,
independent"
within
legislature,
the
otherwise,
as
so
View
a
was
done,
swept
away the
that
America' s
free
as "
crown,
of
legislation
elaborated.
common
their
had
Rights
internal
spheres
For
Parliament.
it
the
pronouncement
and
carefully
under
of
and
as was Britain' s
Parliament to act
to
a
reveal "
deliberate,
Addressing
systematical plan of reducing us to slavery."
Jefferson concluded with
himself directly to the Ring,
these
defiant
liberty
but
at
cannot
determined
The
words: "
the
same
disjoin
time:
to
hand
This,
And
procure
is
greivances . . .
who
the
them.
resolution.
interpose . . .
God
the
that
gave
of
us
Sire,
is
you
will
redress
of
life,
force may
our
fervent
prayer
of
of
debate
over
our
pleased
our
all
us
destroy,
last,
be
these
gave
to
great
British
America."
Q.
he
What' s
significance
constitution?
didn' t
go
this
Britain
and
to war over differing
did
A.
Great
debate
the
American
British
colonies
constitutional
theories,,
disagreement
between the
thevt
The
her
mother
wasn' t
academic.
country and her
The
colonies was
about
where authority to regulate local affairs
reside.
from
to
the
The
power to tax
taxed,
the power
determine
services.
when
The
and
fact
one
may
Britons and
sell
about
in America would
is the power to take
to regulate trade is
where
that
power,
one'
s
Americans
property
the power
goods
came
and
to
�blows
over
this
urgent
increasingly rigid
question
was
assertion of
due
in
part
to
incompatible views
constitution of the British Empire by each side
absence of any
constitutional
That
the
the
of the
and
to
constitutional
dispute
was
a
serious
and
far -
reaching one
constitution
declaring of
relationship
is evidenced by the remarkable period of
making Americans embarked upon with the
governments,
and
within the
national
the
protection
of
governments
grappled
with
and
and
with
made
with
the
local
strong
at
of
the
rights
and
state
and
revolutionary
another chapter in the story.
you recommend
subiect we' ve
a_
a
today?
Gordon S.
Wood' s
1776 - 1787 ( 1969)
origins
issues
individual
repeatedly
by Americans,
But that' s
of
same
A concluding cues ion.
What books wou d
essential reading to interpreters on the
dealt
A.
of
framework
levels
results.
The
1776.
government
independence in
between central
were
vigorous,
Q.
the
agreed upon means of resolving the
dispute by means other than force.
of
The
Creation of
remains
the
American
the definitive study
constitutional
government
in
the
Republic.
of the
United
States.
Last year the University of Georgia Press published
This succinct
peripheries and Center by Jack P. Greene.
and convincing study joins Greene' s unrivaled knowledge of
the
structures
assemblies
to
shed
new
recommend
Mcllwain' s
and
with
a
light
an
oldie
The
development
reappraisal
on
this
but
a
American
Interpretation (
1923).
of
of
America' s
the
fundamental
goodie:
issue.
Charles
Revolution:
It' s flawed,
colonial
constitutional
A
debate
Finally,
I' d
Howard
Constitutional
but
still
merits
reading because it forcefully makes the case for the
centrality of the constitutional issue in any explanation
of
the
causes
and
course
of
the
American
David Konig thinks highly of George
Republic:
Perspectives
on
Early
Constitutionalism.
4
Revolution.
Dargo' s
American
Roots of the
�tki
uestions
Vol.
8,
No.
Answers
June
3
1987
Virginia Government During the Revolution
By Kevin Kelly
Q. What was the structure of government psn-.ahlished by the
Virginia Constitution of 1776?
A.
The
Virginia
Constitution,
adopted
on
June
29,
1776,
was very much a product of the two- decade - long debate
over the role of government and
the rights of citizens.
Although there were to be three separate and distinct
branches -- legislative,
legislative
was
judicial - the
-
and
executive,
clearly superior.
legislature, or General Assembly as it was called,
As had
consisted of a House of Delegates and a Senate.
The
been
the
elected
case
two
in
the
House
of
Burgesses,
each
county
They would now serve for two
delegates.
They also had to be residents in the county
years.
Jamestown and the College of William
they represented.
and Mary lost their_ representatives, but Norfolk and
The state was also divided
Williamsburg kept theirs.
into
A
24
each
districts,
senator
served
four
of
years.
what it had been since 1736:
white
male over
which
21 who
elected
The
one
suffrage
senator.
remained
a voter had to be a free
owned either
100
acres
of
unimproved land or 25 improved acres or a house and lot
in
an
the
incorporated
two
The senate was the weaker of
it could neither initiate
houses;
city.
legislative
legislation nor amend money bills.
The executive branch was composed of the governor and a
Privy
the
Council.
governor,
The
terms.
made
up
However,
years.
could
of
council,
eight
elected by the
members,
who
legislature,
served
twelve
was
years.
two were to rotate off the council every three
The governor could not veto legislation and
not prorogue or adjourn the assembly.
Furthermore,
without
The General Assembly annually elected
who could serve only three consecutive
the
executive
he was not to take executive action
the
Finally,
consent of the council.
branch appointed
local militia officers
and
justices of the peace only upon the recommendations of
the county courts.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�The third branch was composed of separate courts of
Admiralty and Chancery,
Court
of
Appeals.
a
General
Judges
who
Court,
and
a
Supreme
sat on these courts were
elected by the General Assembly.
Q. Although the Constitution of 1776 was philosophically .
att
a
iy
o
Vi
ginia
Whips
did
it
creat
a
solid
functioning government?
A. Problems were evident from the very start.
inherent
in the structure
of
government,
Some
were
others
were
Because Lord
the result of declaring independence.
Dunmore still remained a military threat; Patrick
Henry,
Virginia' s
first
elected
governor,
was
immediately faced with the necessity to maintain
Virginia on a wartime footing.
It quickly became clear
that the constitution hamstrung the governor' s ability
to wage war effectively.
Within
a
year
the
General
Assembly passed a resolution allowing the governor to
exercise powers not authorized by the constitution.
As
the Revolutionary War dragged on, Virginia continued to
confront real and threatened military actions, and the
General Assembly continued to strengthen the governor' s
hand.
The need to solve real wartime problems overrode
prewar fears of centralized power in an executive.
Once Virginia declared
independence
the question of
what laws were still in force had to be faced.
In 1776
the General Assembly appointed a committee to produce a
new law code.
Wythe,
Edmund
This work fell principally on George
Pendleton,
and
Thomas
Jefferson.
After
rejecting the idea to write a completely new set of
laws,
the three modified and updated existing colonial
statutes.
In 1779 the revision was presented to the
General Assembly.
Some of the laws had already been
passed (
such as that ending entail or those beginning
the process of disestablishing the Anglican church),
some were passed in that year,
were tabled until peacetime.
but the vast majority
It
was
that those revised statutes that were
were enacted
Meanwhile,
not
until
1785
still relevant
into law.
in
the
absence
of
a comprehensive
code,
Virginia' s court system was slow in being established.
It was not until January 1778 that judges for all the
state
courts,
created
save the Court of Appeals which was not
later that year,
were appointed by the
For much of the war,
Virginians
Assembly.
until
General
However,
remained in something like a legal limbo.
when the Court of Appeals finally deliberated its first
case
in
October
1782,
important principle
its
ruling
established
the
that the court could declare a
legislative act unconstitutional.
2
J
�Q.
What
kind
A.
During the war,
hands
of
of
the
colonial
planter
of
men
General
of
of
Virginia
and political
while
the
during
courts
1776
nominating
guaranteed
that
considerable
Yet
to
send
to
the
level.
property were elected
there were
regional
legislators.
tended
new
The
older
members
the
of
General
settled
the
social
Assembly,
counties elected men of less social
real differences on issues began
regions.
Delegates from the Southside
Moreover,
separate
took
power
in charge at the local
establishment
newer
standing.
to
of
Assembly.
differences among the
areas
political
county
gentry remained
the
to
Constitution
Furthermore,
to
rose
the Virginia government remained in the
large landowners.
By continuing the
custom
the
members,
men
more
the
locally
taxation for
oriented
example,
stands
whereas
Tidewater
on
matters
of
representatives
were less willing to allow religious toleration.
Despite
leaders,
a
similar
background
a new younger
during the war.
scene
lawyers.
Taylor
Edmund
to
the
older
prewar
group emerged on the political
This was most notable among
Randolph,
St.
George
Caroline,
and John Marshall,
of
Tucker,
John
all still in
began their careers in the late
One characteristic that linked
their 20s or early 30s,
1770s and early 1780s.
these individuals was their military service.
Many
other young Virginians got their first leadership
experience
these
continued
1790s.
Q.
What
as
men
Revolutionary
War
came
to
prominence
active
in
state
were
the
major
and
officers.
during
national
problems
that
the
Many
1780s
politics
of
and
in the
confronted
the
Virginia government during the Revolutionary War?
A.
Virginia' s major difficulties between 1776 and 1783
revolved around its efforts to respond to war- related
The General Assembly was never able to
truly efficient system for recruiting the
contingencies.
establish
a
state' s quota of soldiers for the Continental Army.
They rejected the idea of enlisting slaves and were
unable to offer a bounty appealing enough to attract
The Assembly attempted a draft,
proved highly unpopular and was soon abandoned.
volunteers.
but
it
Virginia had an equally difficult time raising the
materials necessary to supply both the Continental
allotment
incentives
salt,
and
state
for
gunpowder,
lacked
the
the
troops.
Although
production
weapons,
resources
to
of
etc.,
shift
3
the
state
offered
such scarce items as
the state' s economy
into
manufacturing
�although
some
small
for
cannon -making,
successes
were
in gunthe state
and
made,
Moreover,
example).
did
not set up a permanent quartermaster corps until 1781,
and only in 1780 did the legislature establish a fixed
system of county quotas for clothing and provisions.
After
Cornwallis
invaded
the
authorized the executive
supplies.
Even
protest
the
state,
legislature
to impress necessary military
opposition.
and
then,
such
actions
produced
strong
The major problem that contributed greatly to most of
Virginia' s other difficulties was Virginia' s inability
to raise the necessary revenue to fund her wartime
Virginia
activities.
first
resorted to an issue of
That was soon followed
taxes).
backed by
The state attempted to pay
by interest- bearing notes.
off these loans by a general poll tax, as well as by an
paper
notes (
assessment
on
the
value
of
land
and
slaves.
Unfortunately the need for funds ran ahead of the
By 1779 the assembly
state' s ability to raise revenue.
increased the poll tax,
introduced a tariff, and levied
Through
a special tax payable in grain commodities.
this
period
the
value
depreciation
and
subsequent
undercut
supplies.
the
state' s
The
confiscation of
of
currency
ability
financial
Currency
further
purchase
to
crisis
fell.
inflation
military
price
in
loyalist property,
1779
which
led
was
to
an
the
action
had been reluctant to take.
Finally in 1781,
the legislature repudiated its paper money and demanded
Virginia,
eluding
that taxes be paid in hard Honey.
bankruptcy, weathered the financial storm in spite of
Virginia
her
Q.
fiscal
What
books
caution.
could
2
read
if
I
want
to
know
more
about
Virginia' s government during the war,
A.
Billings,
a
introduction.
1803:
and
Selby,
is
History
David
A Biography
information
century.
Virginia (
treatment
about
Finally,
of
the
constitution,
survey
Mays' s
J.
is
Fdmnnd
Virginia
in
the
Selby' s
will
young
Thomas
of
1721-
source
the
war
Jefferson,
most
on
in
detailed
For
years.
Notes
of
eighteenth
Virginia' s
of Virginia, edited by William Peden.
4
late
good
The Revolution
provide
state' s
a
Pendleton.
excellent
John
A
Virginia:
provides
an
discussion
see
that
also
forthcoming)
contemporary
Colonial
Tate,
current
a
first
the
State
�Vol.
8,
No.
Answers
ISZ;
uestions
August
4
1987
Life Under the Articles of Confederation
by John Selby
4
United
A.
s- • •.
U. . ,-
States
did
not have
a
e
0-
T.
constitution?
Although the Continental Congress functioned during the
early years of the Revolutionary War as if the Articles
of Confederation already had legal force, the new
United States of America technically did not ratify its
first
constitution until 1781.
John Dickinson
submitted the first draft of the Articles of
Confederation and Perpetual Union to Congress in 1777.
This draft provided that Congress would hold title to
the unsettled lands between the Appalachian Mountains
and
the Mississippi River.
Led by Virginia, seven
landed" states that held claims to lands beyond the
mountains succeeded in amending the draft to leave
title
with
the
the Articles
for
states.
The
their
as
amended.
positions.
states
Both
Sales of
Congress its best hope of
other
six " landless"
and Maryland in particular refused to ratify
objected,
hand,
Virginians
sides had good arguments
western lands promised
On the
financing the war.
such
many leading Marylanders
as
George
Mason
knew that
and citizens of other landless
states held stock in speculating land companies whose
claims
no "
Congress
these
landed"
obtained
state
land
companies would
would
that
these
it
recognize.
could
leaders
then
Only if
grant
to
stand to make
a
The impasse ended in January 1781 after Mason
and Thomas Jefferson among other Virginians became
profit.
convinced that their state had to sacrifice its claims
for the good of the union.
Although they had reached
this conclusion before Lord Cornwallis and the main
British army began marching toward Virginia, Mason' s
resolution did not pass until the last day of the
legislative session in January 1781 as Benedict
Arnold' s fleet swept up the James River to assault
Richmond.
Virginia, however,
beneficence:
Congress could
recognize no speculating
claim
the
that
originated
before
placed a
condition on
cession.
Maryland
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
its
�retaliated by ratifying the Articles of Confederation
but preventing Congress from accepting the cession
until 1784.
At length,
in an accommodation to save
face on both sides, Virginia agreed to retract its
condition with the understanding that Congress would
abide by it anyway.
4.
What form of government did the Articles of
COnf d ration
atabl'
A.
h?
The Articles of Confederation formed
a "
Perpetual
Union" of thirteen sovereign states that was more than
a military alliance and yet less than a sovereign
Although from the beginning the name of
the new country was "
nation itself.
the United States of America,"
contemporaries used plural pronouns to refer to the
union rather than singular as is the custom today.
The
states agreed to defend each other and,
end,
toward that
the power to declare war and peace,
exclusive
granted Congress control of diplomatic affairs,
and
direction of the army and navy other than the militia.
The states also agreed to share Congress' s expenses in
proportion to the amount of land surveyed in each,
grant "
full faith and credit" to each other' s
administrative and judicial actions,
and
to
to permit
citizens of any state to move freely within all the
states.
Although individual states retained title to
western lands, Congress had the power to adjudicate
boundary disputes,
determine the value of coins, set
standard weights and measures,
office.
and operate
a post
To draw a modern analogy, the Confederation
established an American Common Market, but unlike the
European Common Market,
the Confederation also had
responsibility for common defense.
The central government under the Confederation
consisted solely of the Continental Congress, composed
of two to seven delegates from each state. Whatever
the number of delegates, each state had one vote.
A
majority of nine states was required to determine major
issues such as declaring war or peace, issuing coins or
currency, otherwise, treaties, or appointing a commander
in chief; ratifying
a simple majority sufficed.
Amending the Articles required unanimous consent of the
states.
Congressmen could serve only three years out
of any six.
They elected their own president (
Peyton
Randolph was the first),
who could serve only one year
out of any three.
For most of the war Congress
administered its affairs through standing committees:
the Secret Committee (
foreign trade),
2
the Committee of
�Secret Correspondence ( diplomatic and
the Marine
matters),
consular
Committee ( naval
affairs),
and
the
Committee on Accounts and the Treasury Committee.
Congress also had a Board of War and military
administrators
such
Commissary General,
as
the
Adjutant
General,
the
and the Quartermaster General.
With ratification of the Articles in early 1781,
Congress abandoned trying to run the government by
committee
and created
four
executive
departments:
Finance ( headed by Robert Morris as Superintendent of
Finance),
Foreign Affairs ( headed by Robert
War ( headed by Benjamin Lincoln),
Livingston),
and
Marine ( which
reported
to
Morris).
Some
cabinet
posts
thus antedate the adoption of the 1787 constitution.
The Superintendent of Finance served as de facto prime
All the department heads reported directly
minister.
to
Congress.
Although these
executive
departments
bear
some resemblance to modern British parliamentary
government,
it should be
remembered
that the
parliamentary system as we know it had not yet fully
evolved
in Britain.
The Americans
should
not
be
thought to have been trying to emulate it.
Q.
Were
the
A.
Both contemporary critics of the Articles of
Confederation and many nineteenth -century historians
argued
1780s
that
a"
the
critical period"
weakness
of
the
of American history?
central
government
during the Confederation period jeopardized the great
achievements
of
the
American Revolution.
The
implication of the interpretation is that those who
opposed adoption of the 1787 constitution were
benighted.
While not denying the seriousness of the
Confederation' s
problems,
modern historians are more
appreciative of the fact that opponents of the 1787
Most
constitution had valid interests at stake.
twentieth -century writers have not automatically
assumed
that
the
proposals
of
the
Philadelphia
Convention afforded the only possible solutions to the
Some have even
difficulties facing the new nation.
suggested that the 1787
constitution
rather
than the
Articles may have been the greater threat to the ideals
of
Q
the
Revolution.
Row extensive
was
criticism of
the Articles
of
Confederation?
A.
By the mid- 1780s,
most leading Americans were probably
dissatisfied with the Articles of Confederation.
debate raged over how far to go to improve them.
3
The
The
�sharpest critics
constitution;
called for
those
less
an entirely new
critical
granting Congress added authority.
proposed amendments
The harshest
critics came from sections of the country like the
Tidewater and central Piedmont of Virginia that had
prospered from participation in British imperial trade
before the war and now found themselves excluded by
independence
from the mercantilistic
British
system.
merchants eagerly flooded the new nation with goods
during the first year of peace to satisfy American
demand pent up through seven years of war.
Notwithstanding the importance of the United States as
an export market,
British authorities kept American
merchants from selling in British and West Indian
markets through which colonists had earned credits to
Although some
pay for their imports before the war.
American merchants already searched for new world
for
markets (
example,
the
Empress
of China,
the
American vessel that opened the fabulous China trade of
the next half- century, sailed for Canton from New York
the ventures had yet to have economic effect.
in 1784),
By late 1784 and 1785 the new country, especially its
fell
port
cities and
commercial agricultural areas,
Areas of the nation more
into a deep depression.
involved
in subsistence agriculture suffered,
credit dried up and foreclosures began,
too,
as
but those
sections generally had less reason to complain about
the weakness
Q.
What
were
the
onfederation
A.
of the Confederation
real
crincigsl '
of
government.
cr
t; cism of
the
government'
Critics of the Articles of Confederation believed
overall that the document conferred too little power on
the
central government for
effective
rule.
Critics
identified at least five areas of government that they
taxation,
thought required drastic revision:
of
paper
police,
1.
currency,
and foreign
interstate
commerce,
control
international
affairs.
Throughout the war,
Congress struggled with the
fact that it did not possess the power to tax the
people directly.
requisitions (
that
It had instead to depend on
is,
requests)
for
funds
and
supplies from the states which in the best of times
Twice,
responded only slowly.
in
1781
and 1783,
Congress proposed to amend the Articles to allow it
to levy an impost or import duty, but after long
delays at least one state in each instance refused
Rhode Island in 1782 ( leading Virginia
to ratify:
4
�to rescind
its consent)
and
New York
in 1786.
These failures caused many critics to abandon hope
of amending the Articles and to think in terms of
totally rewriting the constitution.
2.
The postwar depression also brought to the fore the
need to control state issues of paper currency.
meet wartime expenses,
To
both the Continental
Congress and the states had resorted so heavily to
the expedient of printing paper money with little
or no security that enormous inflation resulted.
Congress repudiated most of its issues even before
the fighting ended and, after the peace, refrained
from issuing more.
Some states had better records
than others in redeeming their war debts.
Virginia, for example, met most of its obligations
within a decade or so by sales of its enormous
tracts of western lands.)
Some
issuing paper currency after
states continued
the peace. Again some
had better records than others in controlling the
issues.
Rhode
Island and North Carolina
in
particular became notorious for their lack of
restraint.
Hard times also led debtor elements in
various states to lobby successfully for laws that
placed moratoriums on debt collection or legal
tender laws that allowed payment of bills in paper
currency or
commodities
instead of specie.
Such expedients greatly alarmed the monied class
who vigorously opposed government interference with
the sanctity of public or private contracts however
humane the reason.
3.
In colonial days not even the august majesty of the
British crown had resolved all of the economic
tensions among the colonies.
With that supervisory
power
gone,
York,
Connecticut,
confrontations
broke out between New
and New Jersey over trade in and
around New York harbor and between Maryland and
Virginia over fishing rights in the Potomac River.
Disputes over land titles also occurred between New
Hampshire and New York in Vermont, New York and
Massachusetts in the Finger Lakes region,
Connecticut and Pennsylvania in the Wyoming Valley,
and Pennsylvania and Virginia in the Pittsburgh
area.
Many of these disputes were resolved either
independently or through the good auspices of the
Confederation government. (
Virginia settled its
boundary dispute with Pennsylvania between 1781 and
1784.)
Still,
a threat remained
5
to one of the
�Confederation' s primary objectives,
common
market.
formation of a
In 1786 Virginia issued its call
for a convention in Annapolis specifically to
address questions of interstate commerce.
4.
Although the Articles of Confederation granted
Congress some authority over boundary disputes and
committed the states to give full faith and credit
to each other' s legal actions, no national court
system existed to adjudicate conflicts of
jurisdiction.
Even in areas where Congress had
authority,
the Confederation government had no
mechanism to enforce its
decisions.
This
impotence
became more glaring after the signing of the peace
treaty when Congress ordered demobilization of the
Continental Army until only a few small detachments
remained
at
posts
such
as
the
arsenals
at
Springfield, Massachusetts,
and Harper' s Ferry,
Virginia.
When an unfavorable tax structure
coupled with the postwar depression brought
foreclosures in central and western Massachusetts
in
1786,
Daniel Shays led irate farmers to close
local courts and keep them from executing decrees.
The militia from nearby counties proved unreliable
and the military detachment at Springfield too weak
to
intervene.
The governor condoned the
solicitation of private contributions in eastern
parts of the state to recruit troops to suppress
the uprising - - precedent itself quite alarming to
a
proponents of law and order.
These events during
the winter of 1786 - 87 ( between the meeting of the
Annapolis Convention and the gathering of the
Philadelphia Convention)
prepared many moderate
critics of the Articles to accept more extensive
revisions in the structure of the central
government than they had originally considered.
5.
Finally,
in foreign affairs,
critics
considered
that the Confederation government had a dismaying
record.
Most embarrassing was the failure of
Congress to persuade the British to fulfill the
provisions of the peace treaty that called for
evacuation of British forts on American soil along
the Canadian border.
Britain would not evacuate
unless Congress persuaded the states to open their
courts
do so,
to British creditors. (
for example,
Virginia would not
because the British refused to
consider slaves who had fled to their lines as
captured "
property" which the peace treaty
committed them to return to private American
6
�citizens
after
the
war.)
The Confederation also
had less than notable success negotiating with
Britain and France for commercial treaties, with
the Barbary States in northern Africa to prevent
raids on American shipping, and with Spain for
freer navigation of the lower Mississippi River.
Q.
Did th
Conf dera ion goy
nm n
hay
ny_
successes?
A.
igni
an
Aside from winning the war, the Confederation
government' s most notable success lay in the innovative
policy it adopted for settlement of the western lands.
The policy rested on the radical principle that
colonies of the United States ( that is, the western
territories) ought someday to become equal to the
mother country ( the original thirteen states).
Had
Great Britain adopted such a policy regarding the
American colonies,
the Revolution well might not have
occurred.
Congress enacted this policy in the
Ordinance of 1784, which Jefferson drafted, and
expanded it in the Northwest Ordinance three years
later.
The latter statute established the procedure
for attaining statehood that new states have followed
to the present.
The Northwest Ordinance also abolished
slavery north of
the
Ohio River.
In a third statute,
the Ordinance of 1785, Congress designed the
rectilinear grid system by which almost all the West
was surveyed, reserved lands for the support of public
education in the Northwest territories, and provided a
dependable source of revenue for the Confederation
through systematic sale of the rest.
Q.
what_122s2lizsad_yarsamencisniataraetenssLteid
about the Confederation period?
A.
The best overall study is Jackson T. Main, The AntiFederalists!
Chapel Hill,
Critics of the Constitution. 1781 -17a8
N.
C.,
1961).
Although the focus is the
debate over ratification, several introductory chapters
recount the troubles of the Confederation.
Jack
Rakove' s The Beginnings of National Politics,
Int
York,
E.
James Ferguson' s The Power of the Pursez
of American Public Finance.
C.,
An
n eia iy Histo y of the Continent 1
ongress (
1979) covers the topic in considerable detail.
1961)
A History
1776- 1790 ( Chapel Hill,
N.
illuminates a formidable sounding topic with
great clarity.
For Virginia politics,
a
good
account
is Volume II of Irving Brant' s biography, JAM8
Madison,
New
the Nationalist.
1780- 1787 (
7
New York,
1948).
�8Z,
Questions
Vol.
8,
No.
Answers
5
October
OUESTIONS. AND. ANSWERS., 1987 -
1987
THE. UNITED STATES. CONSTITUT.ION
Movement .for_Constitutional..Refor,
m:.
The..Virainia
Perspective
J.
Douglas
Smith
CONTENTS
1.
What were some of the conditions that contributed to
the development of sectional attitudes in Virginia in
the
1780s?
2. What were the internal political rivalries in Virginia
at the
close of the Revolution?
3. What economic issues on the state and national levels
concerned Virginians most in the period from 1784 to
1787?
4.
How did Virginia' s cession of its western land claims
contribute to strengthening the nation?
5.
What was the significance for the nation of the
struggle in Virginia to separate church and state?
6.
How did Virginia -Maryland controversies help reveal
weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation?
7.
What issues divided the delegates to the Virginia
Convention in Richmond in June 1788?
Virginia' s Western Claims ( following question 4)
A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom" ( following
question
5)
Map showing the vote in the Virginia Convention of 1788
on the ratification of the Federal Constitution
following question 7)
Suggested Reading
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�What qer.e . some . of the conditions that contributed .to..the..
ale.velapment .. f..s.
a
ectional. atti.
tudes in V. .
i r.gi.nta In the .1.7.8.0s?
1.
Political rivalries or factions in Virginia during and after
The social,
the Revolution were based,
in part, on geography.
political,
and economic interests of the six or seven sections
One
into which Virginia was divided did not always coincide.
must always be careful in making sweeping generalizations about
the
to
consensus
remind
in
a particular
ourselves
of
these
Perhaps
section.
sections
and
their
it would be well
general
character.
Tidewater Virginia was delimited by a line drawn from
Alexandria through the fall line towns of Fredericksburg,
Within this area there was a section
Richmond, and Petersburg.
that
was
somewhat
Anglican;
tobacco;
fall
line
separate - -the
Northern
Tidewater
Neck.
was
knit together by its riverborne commerce, especially in
with a merchant group in Alexandria, Norfolk, and the
towns.
Slavery was important.
Tidewater' s
political
strength was given continuity in the Virginia Constitution of
See the table
1776 by the representation given this section. (
below from Jefferson' s Notes. nn the State..af..Virainia.)
The.. Northern .Neck was originally thought of as the area
between
the
expanded to
the
Potomac
and
the
Rappahannock
rivers.
The
term was
include all the land west to the Blue Ridge including
counties
of
Fairfax,
Fauquier,
Loudoun,
Prince
William,
The bases of wealth in the Northern
Stafford,
and King George.
Neck were the large grants of land made to a relatively few
families by the agents of Lord Fairfax.
with Fairfax
connections had dominated
the
period,
colonial
political
and
social
Northern Neck families
in this area throughout
and they would continue to exert strong
influence
after
the Revolution.
As
soil
the
fertility declined in the older part of the Northern Neck,
fertile
lands
Fauquier,
1780s.
and
to the west
Loudoun)
in
the northern
Piedmont ( Fairfax,
attracted a growing population in the
Slaveholding among the great landholders declined in the
1780s in this section while slaveholding increased among smaller
In agriculture,
landowners.
this
section had
led in the shift
from tobacco to wheat which was well underway by the close of the
Revolution.
Key to the area was the trade with and through
Alexandria.
That city' s population, black and white, increased
from
2, 000 to
ethnic mix,
3, 000
in
the
1780s.
predominantly English,
the merchants of Alexandria,
The Northern Neck had
a
rich
with Scotch prominent among
and Germans and Quakers prospering
in the rich farmland of Loudoun County.
Southside. Virainia was
and
is that
region from the
James
This was the
River Valley southward into the Carolina Piedmont.
heartland of Virginia tobacco growing in the colonial period, the
While the total value
indeed, to this day.
post -Revolution and,
of Virginia tobacco exported rose during the 1780s, its share of
2
�the total value of Virginia exports declined from 68 percent to
approximately 54 percent by 1790 - 1791.
The tobacco farmers of
this region had not discovered the virtues of fertilizing their
lands either with lime or manure.
Worn -out lands were left to
grow scrub while new lands were cleared.
Cattle were pastured on
the scrub land, which prevented a complete reversion to forest.
Eventually, fertility was restored to the worn -out lands that
were
cleared once
again.
Most of the land under cultivation on
the farms and plantations was used to raise corn,
cotton,
flax,
and
garden
crops.
cereals,
Money was scarce in the region;
transport of crops to market was difficult and expensive.
Slavery was important and expanding after the Revolution.
reasons of geography,
economics,
region was somewhat isolated,
and
poor,
social
and
For
characteristics this
provincial.
The
political views and actions of its representatives mirrored this.
In religion the area belonged to the Baptists and Methodists.
There were no Anglican churches after the Revolution.
Piedmont Virginia is the rolling, hilly in the west, area
between the Blue Ridge and the western edge of Tidewater ( the
fall
line).
This area had a mixed agricultural picture with
tobacco, wheat, and corn grown at the end of the Revolution; by
the end of the 1780s tobacco planting was greatly reduced in the
region.
Coupled with the decline in tobacco production was a
decline in the importance of slavery in the 1780s and 1790s.
Small landholders predominated in this region, and they looked to
Petersburg and Richmond as markets for their few surplus crops.
The northern Piedmont looked to Fredericksburg and, increasingly,
Alexandria as their natural outlets.
In religion the Piedmont
was much more diversified than Southside.
Presbyterians,
Baptists,
Methodists,
and Quakers were found there along with
although the Anglican church was in decline.
In
economic matters Piedmont Virginia shared similar views with
Episcopalians,
Southside.
The Northern Shenandoah Valley was isolated from eastern
Virginia by the Blue Ridge and by ethnic and religious
differences.
The two northern counties ( Frederick and Berkeley)
were extremely fertile with probably the best farmland in the
state.
The two dominant groups tended to settle in towns
distinctly their own:
Scotch -Irish in Winchester and Staunton;
Germans in Martinsburg, Mecklenburg, Stephensburg, and Strasburg.
Eastern Virginians, attracted by the productive lands, moved
across the Blue Ridge in increasing numbers during and after the
Revolution.
Their center was Charlestown.
Whether
Virginian,
Scotch -Irish or German, the farmers and merchants of the Valley
looked to Philadelphia as their natural market.
By the 1790s
Alexandria and Baltimore were beginning to make some inroads into
this Valley trade.
As one traveled south the land was not so
fertile or so well cleared, with Shenandoah County more
cultivated and Rockingham County more forested.
Slavery existed
in the area but it was far less important than in eastern
3
�Virginia;
not
some four -fifths of the landholders in the Valley did
own any slaves
at
all.
The. Southern. Shenandoah Valley ( Augusta,
Rockbridge,
and
Bath counties) and SpS, rhwest Virginia were similar to the
northern Shenandoah Valley in their ethnic pattern of settlement.
Native Virginians and Scotch -Irish were the leading groups in
Augusta
and
Rockbridge.
In southwest Virginia ( Botetourt,
Wythe,
and Montgomery counties) Germans were by far the largest ethnic
Surplus
group.
crops
from Augusta
and Rockbridge
were
carted
overland to Richmond, but it was an arduous and risky business.
In religion the
Slaveholding was not important in this region.
region was dominated by the Presbyterians and the German Pietists
Dunkards,
1. 1C 3331V 1111. 0O3
In political
and Brethren).
and economic matters
the entire Valley of
Virginia and Southwest Virginia had generally common views in the
1780s.
As we shall see,
this consensus did not entirely hold up
when the new Constitution of 1787 was being debated.
Trans -Allegheny Virginia was that vast area now covered by
the states of West Virginia and Kentucky.
This
region had
In
attracted increasing numbers as the Revolution progressed.
the 1780s the influx was explosive so that the population of the
Landless folk from the
younger sons of Shenandoah
region was approximately 100, 000 by 1790.
Virginia and North Carolina Piedmonts,
Valley farmers and graziers,
were all lured into the area.
large tracts of land; in some
them;
and
squatters
Some
of
from various
these
settlers
places
purchased
cases they brought slaves to clear
While the
in others they paid squatters to do the work.
other sections of Virginia --especially the Tidewater, Piedmont,
and Valley -- tended to have a common sectional economic outlook,
the Trans - Allegheny region was fragmented by its isolated
settlements,
its diversity of interests, and the difficulty of
Kentuckians looked down the Ohio to New Orleans
natural market; on the other hand, northwestern
communications.
as
their
Virginians overwhelmingly looked east to Cumberland, Baltimore,
and Philadelphia.
As we shall see,
Trans -Allegheny Virginia
split over the ratification of the proposed Constitution of 1787.
�2.
What were the _
internal political..rivalries in Virginia at
Differences between and among the sections in Virginia had,
been apparent during the pre- Revolutionary period.
Voting power in the House of Burgesses was heavily weighted
of
course,
toward eastern Virginia;
colonial
roads were
generally abysmal,
but Piedmont and Valley Virginians felt the Assembly was
particularly indifferent to their needs for better
communications;
the
question of
frontier
defense
against the
Indians aroused strong passions in westerners who often believed
the east was negligent in its support;
stronger
hold
in
the east;
slavery had a much
in religious life the
dissenters
of
the Piedmont and Valley chafed under the state church policies;
access to western lands was another divisive factor; different
types of farms and agriculture set the east apart from the north
and west in their interests; ethnic tensions between and among
the predominant
German,
and
English
Quakers
stock
added
and the Scotch,
further
unrest;
Scotch - Irish,
finally, there were
strong feelings about navigational improvements, especially on
the
Potomac River,
that created sectional rivalry.
These pre -Revolutionary conflicts were given additional
impetus by the internal tensions in Virginia over the conduct of
the
war.
The raising of forces, taxation to support the state
government and the military effort, the impressment of food
supplies,
the conduct of military strategy,
to protect the Virginia frontier - -hese
t
perpetuated sectional feelings.
the need for troops
and other
issues
One source of bitterness -- political representation - was
embedded in the new Virginia Constitution of 1776.
The old
dominance of the east seemed to be enshrined in the new
government.
Thomas
Jefferson,
as
a
westerner,
was
so
perturbed
that he included an interesting table in his Notes on. the State
of Virginia which called attention to this imbalance:
Square :
Fighting . .
Miles ....,:... Men .......:.
_
Between the
falls of
sea
and
Delectates..:
Senators:
the .
the rivers •
Between the falls of the .
rivers and the Blue .
Ridge of mountains •
Between the Blue Ridge .
of mountains and the .
Alleghenies •
Between the Alleghenies .
and the. Ohio.,...... ......:
11, 265 :
19, 012
71
12 .
18, 759 :
18, 828
46
8.
11, 911
7, 673
16
2.
70
4. 458
16 ..,._ :.
2:
650 •..
5
�While
issues,
and
sectional
attitudes
developed around
these
several
the early 1780s saw the introduction of some new factors
issues.
The leading divisive social question was the
new
disestablishment of
the
church
More
of Virginia.
about
that
The most important issues that separated the sections in
Gradually the
Virginia in the early 1780s were economic.
representatives from the various sections in the state
later.
legislature tended to coalesce around a particular
Thus political factions
these economic questions.
viewpoint on
These
arose.
factions ( they were not defined or disciplined enough yet to call
parties) not only began to reveal internal
them political
divisions in state matters but also generally reflected the views
of their adherents on the national questions that came
fore as the 1780s progressed.
What were some of these
to the
issues?
Who were the men who emerged in the early 1780s as principal
factional
leaders?
Virginia, along with the other states, had issued a vast
No one was happy
amount of paper currency during the Revolution.
with this situation; between 1780 and 1784 the assembly enacted
In fact,
legislation to reduce this outstanding paper currency.
by 1784 the state was spending over 80 percent of its annual
budget on debt retirement.
This meant that there was less money
In general,
the
in circulation, which helped to depress prices.
farmers -- whether plantation owner, middling, or small freeholder
were hurt by the depressed prices and their representatives
tended
to unite
in their
efforts
to
effect
relief.
Depressed prices meant difficulty in paying taxes.
Virginia
for
delegates were
Western
able to push through the Assembly a scale
the property tax - -the
principal
source
of
state
In
revenue.
1782 the property tax was levied at ten shillings per pound
valuation
Piedmont,
in
the Tidewater,
seven
shillings
sixpence
five shillings sixpence in the Valley,
and
in
the
three
Further relief was sought to
shillings in Trans -Allegheny.
permit farmers to pay taxes in commodities -- tobacco, flour, hemp,
and
deerskins.
This
relief
was
extended
then to eastern Virginians by 1783.
first
Another
postpone the collection of the property tax,
to
westerners,
tactic was to
which was done
in
1784.
The effect of all this was that by 1784 Virginia had
redeemed most of the paper money issued during the Revolution,
had
reduced
sectional,
its debt,
and had done all
factional divisions.
this
without
serious
The economic issue that caused the deepest split in Virginia
after the Revolution was the question of the debts owed to
British
debt
merchants.
retirement
and
around the positions
The relative unanimity that prevailed on the
tax
relief
questions
taken on the British
6
did
not
endure.
It
debts question that
was
�fairly clearly defined political factions began to emerge by
1784.
Let us examine briefly how two factions developed in the
period 1782 - 1784 in the Virginia Assembly.
One faction we can call the Nationalist /Creditor group.
these men stressed the
general,
importance of
In
fiscal
responsibility ( strong currency, payment of debts, fiscal
honor ");
economic interdependence through commerce with other
states
and
foreign countries;
greater
national
strength
correcting the flaws in the Articles of Confederation.
was
a more
cosmopolitan outlook
toward
the
nation
and
through
Theirs
the
world.
This group had no real leader in the Assembly until James Madison
took his
seat in 1784.
However,
there were several extremely
important men who supported these views who were not members of
George Washington' s support was critical.
Not
the Assembly.
only did he bring the immense prestige of his Revolutionary
leadership, but also his connections with friends in Maryland and
further north gave the faction national influence.
This faction
had valuable representation in the Confederation Congress in
James
Madison ( 1780 - 1783)
and
not a member of the Assembly,
of
Virginia ( 1776- 1786),
James
Monroe (
1783- 1786).
Edmund Randolph,
Although
attorney general
was in a highly strategic position in
Richmond to advise his Nationalist /Creditor friends of political
developments.
On the fringes of this group were Thomas Jefferson and
Mason.
Jefferson was away from Virginia during most of
George
this
period,
France (
serving briefly in Congress ( 1783 - 1784)
1784- 1789);
however,
he kept in touch,
and
then in
especially with
James Madison, who kept him informed of developments in Virginia.
Mason' s prestige was of great value to the Nationalist /Creditor
group.
His views on fiscal propriety,
however, were founded more
that is, a man paid his debts
by " the state" but because it was
on a sense of personal rectitude,
not because he was compelled to
If governmental
the honorable thing and expected of a gentleman.
compulsion were used,
Mason was prepared to support action by the
Commonwealth of Virginia, but he was adamantly opposed to action
by a central government.
The opposition faction was a loose -knit group that we can
In general,
these men favored
designate the State /Debtor group.
a plentiful
money supply ( paper)
help drive up prices;
to help with debt payment and to
tax relief in the form of tax payments in
commodities or delays in the collection of taxes;
to
provide
debt
relief.
concerns were local
and
to Virginia home markets,
the
West,
and
a
various plans
Their outlook was more provincial; their
state -oriented.
They wanted better roads
a chance to acquire fertile lands in
protected market
for
their
leader of this faction was Patrick Henry.
products.
It is hard
The
nominal
to
determine just how influential Henry was.
He was frequently
absent from the House of Delegates and missed many roll call
votes.
He was not,
by personality or experience,
7
cut
out
to
be
a
�legislative leader.
With all of
exerted considerable influence.
viewpoint was Speaker John Tyler
his seeming indifference, Henry
Generally allied with this
who brought to the
State /Debtor
General
group a few friends from the lower James River.
Another
Thomas
familiar
Nelson of Yorktown was in this camp as well.
name,
Richard Henry Lee, led a small following in the House of
Delegates
that
was
part
of
this
State /Debtor
Patrick
alliance.
Henry was accused by his political opponents of always shifting
his views to coincide with what seemed to be prevailing popular
sentiment.
This may be true, but it is certainly clear that a
majority of the House of Delegates agreed with the State /Debtor
faction in the early 1780s.
3.
What . economic . issues..on.. the .. tate..and.. natianal..levels
s
1.
The
economic
no .
c 1.
issues
1.
that
4-
concerned Virginians the most
in
these years may be summarized as follows:
It
British Debts
thirteen English colonies
is
owed
estimated that citizens
British
merchants
a
in the
total
of
In
approximately L4, 000, 000 at the beginning of the Revolution.
1791 British merchants jointly drew up an account of the debts
still
unpaid
and
presented
the
list
to
the
British
government.
Approximately 500 Virginia planters were named in the accounts,
but the likelihood is that many other Virginians owed debts to
British interests as well.
The table below indicates Virginia' s
share of this debt; not included in the table are the debts owed
The figures are in pounds
by the miqidle and northern colonies.
sterling.
1790 (
1776
5%
Maryland
289, 000
Virginia
1, 164, 000
added)
571, 000
2, 305, 409
192, 000
347, 000
interest
379, 000
687, 954
North
Carolina
South
Carolina
The Virginia Assembly enacted a moratorium on the collection
of both
domestic
and
foreign debts
in
November
1781.
The
Anglo-
American Treaty of 1783 guaranteed that creditors on both sides
Many
would not be hindered in the recovery of debts owed them.
prominent Virginians,
including Washington, Jefferson, Pendleton,
and
Mason,
favored the
1James F.
T . ad .... and..
Cambridge,
repayment
of
Shepherd and Gary M.
h
1972),
on
m;
pp.
D
the
Walton,
velopment . of..
131 - 133.
principal
o
of
these
debts.
shiopina....Maritime
o.ni.a -.. NO . th. Ame.r.i.ea
�They were opposed to the payment of interest.
Furthermore,
many
Virginians were bitter about the destruction of property in the
state by British marauders such as Colonel Banastre Tarleton' s
raiders,
damage inflicted by the British Navy, and by the loss of
an estimated 30, 000 slaves to the British side.
Virginia' s moratorium on the payment of her British debts
had a national
impact.
The British in 1783 - 1784 refused
to
vacate forts south of the Great Lakes required of them by the
Treaty of 1783.
obstruction
others,
1783,
This
refusal
was
in the debts matter.
based,
in part,
on Virginia' s
Washington and Madison,
among
feared that Great Britain might renounce the Treaty of
which would split apart the fragile United States.
Both the Virginia House of Delegates and the Virginia Senate
passed bills late in 1784 that contained plans for the repayment
of the British debts over a period of seven years and excluded
any interest charges.
These bills were never reconciled by
conference
committee,
debt repayment
scheme.
however, and the Assembly never enacted a
Therefore, Virginia' s moratorium of 1781
remained in effect until the ratification of the Constitution of
It is hard to discern a clear division on this question in
1787.
the
House
of Delegates.
In
general,
the
strongest support
for
the Nationalist /Creditor view came from Tidewater and the
Northern
Neck.
However,
many western Virginians began to fear
continued British presence on the frontier and sided with
easterners in voting for debt repayment.
The
State /Debtor
faction received its strongest support from Southside Virginia
and the Piedmont in opposition to payment of the British debts.
Scarcity of Money . .
Virginia.
campaign,
Specie had
always
been scarce
in
The French army brought in some during the Yorktown
but by war' s end most of the specie in Virginia had
vanished in the wave of paper money that washed over the state.
At the end of the Revolution, Virginians were using paper
currency,
money,
military certificates issued to soldiers in lieu of
the barter system, and the sale or trade of
commodities,
slaves to pay their debts and to purchase their goods.
As
we
have seen, Virginia' s Assembly made a determined effort during
1780 - 1784 to reduce the supply of paper money in circulation.
Everyone was affected by this --merchants,
farmers,
small
landholders,
slaveholder,
planters,
and
middling
non - slaveowner
alike.
There were two principal reasons why the scarcity of money
in the 1780s did not result in an orgy of cheap currency in
Virginia.
One was the roughly equal strength of the
Nationalist /Creditor and State /Debtor groups in the Assembly.
The other was that there was no prominent leader
in either
faction who supported increasing the money supply through the
issuance of paper currency.
Not even Patrick Henry, when the
arose,
would stand up in favor of this remedy.
opportunities
9
�BRITISH
POSSESSIONS
1
MAINE
Claimed be Uo Mass.
N. Y. lo 1790
n
1.
T
r/
\'
v
N H. C
1
NEW YORK
Cr
e Ceded
by
1
i"
Mass., 1785
t -<
l.
GCede• by
ceded by Conn., 1786 • Resery
A
T : :v 1
S .,
PENNSYLVANIA
7
N. I j
I
j
I
lnr.
se
Ohio
VIRGINIA
Ceded by Va.,
i
1792
N
Ceded by N. Carolina ,'-
N. CAROLIN A
1790
ceded hr s c,
i
S . CAROLINA ' -
Ceded by Georgia . L
1802
GEORGIA
Claimed by Spain
to 1795
a
1i
1I
Oc St -_
_
1: Ir.
Virginia' s Western Claims
�The calls for an increased money supply were loudest in the
mid -1780s as the postwar depression hit Virginia' s farmers and
merchants
alike.
By 1787 there were signs of economic recovery,
and the paper money issue gradually lessened.
4.
How did Vi.r.ainia' s,. cession.,of its western land..claimS
contribute .to strengthening. the ,
,
nation?
There were many elements at work in the question of what to
do about the western lands held by the seven states that claimed
lands between the Appalachians and the Mississippi River.
Small
states wanted to reduce the size of larger states by
relinquishing these lands; settlers in the lands probably
preferred the creation of new states to the continued control by
a distant eastern state government; the northern and western
boundaries of states needed to be secured against encroachment;
problems were caused by the inability of a distant state
government,
provide
in Richmond, for example, to protect settlers,
and encourage and regulate trade; there was the
roads,
promise and development of these and riches in the ownership,'
of economic opportunity lands;
sales,
there was no machinery for
the arbitration or adjudication of disputes between states with
common western borders
or
lands.
All of these were part of the
controversy over the disposition of these lands.
But the most important questions were these:
Would
the
cession of these western lands fatally weaken state sovereignty
and dangerously strengthen the central government?
hand,
On the other
if the lands were not ceded would the states holding them
contribute to the destruction of the United States because the
central government lacked the power to establish boundaries,
settle disputes,
and exercise the national sovereignty required
to maintain stability and internal order and to encourage growth
and development?
strong
views
These were momentous questions and inspired
sides.
Gradually, however, the view
on both
prevailed that the states had far more to gain by strengthening
the central government because their very existence might be
endangered were they selfishly to insist on holding on to the
western
lands.
In late 1780 the Confederation Congress issued a call to the
seven states that held western lands to cede their claims.
The
seven were Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, New York, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.
The Virginia Assembly,
on January 2,
statement
1781, passed resolutions that begin with the clear
that, "
being well satisfied that the happiness,
strength and safety of the United States depend under Providence
upon the ratification of the Articles for a federal union between
the United States heretofore proposed by Congress for the
consideration of the said States and preferring the good of their
Country to every object of smaller importance do Resolve that
10
�this
Commonwealth will
to
yeild ()
the
Congress
of
the
United
States for the benefit of the said United States all right title
and claim that the said Commonwealth hath to the Lands Northwest
of the River Ohio upon the following conditions to wit: . . ."
The
conditions that the Virginia Assembly spelled out were
The most significant condition for the future of the
important.
United States was the promise that the new states to be carved
out of this territory would be admitted to the United States as
equals
to
original states.
that George
were:
Other
the
resolutions
Rogers
stipulations
Clark
and
in the
the soldiers
who
had fought with him to capture and defend western lands be
granted a tract of land in payment and appreciation for their
efforts;
that Congress honor the claims of title to western lands
held by Virginians and guarantee title rights to former soldiers
who had been given military bounty land claims in lieu of pay;
and that Congress void any out -of -state land company claims that
had not been authorized by Virginia.
This last clause was the stickiest issue,
but the other
conditions exacted by Virginia also rankled some members of the
Confederation Congress.
They were so opposed that for three
years - -until
offer.
March
1784 -- Congress
refused
to
accept Virginia' s
Opponents in Congress finally had to recognize that it
was much better to accept the Virginia conditions in order to
strengthen the government under the Articles of Confederation and
to provide for orderly settlement of the western lands.
When the
cession
on
Confederation Congress approved the Virginia
1784,
it was perhaps the most important
1,
March
action accomplished by that Congress in the years under the
of Confederation.
By this action Congress went far
toward removing the chief obstacle in the struggle of the smaller
Articles
The controversy over
states for equity with the larger states.
western
lands
had
complicated
the
life of
the
new nation
principally by delaying the ratification of the Articles of
Confederation from 1777
to
1781. (
Maryland,
for
example,
refused
to ratify the Articles until Virginia ceded its western lands.)
The controversy had probably been the chief cause of trouble in
interstate
relations under
the Articles.
The significance of the cession cannot be overemphasized.
Now all of the states had a common interest in the national
domain.
more
Virginia and other states that ceded land now had much
supportable
claims.
Their
claims
were
to
receive
national
Supporters of state sovereignty could point to the
fact that Congress, by recognizing the validity of state titles,
protection.
had actually strengthened state sovereignty.
Furthermore,
the
ceding states were relieved of the almost impossible task of
trying to govern the ungovernable,
cession meant
guaranteed
distant
western lands.
that Virginia now had stable,
As one writer has said, "
recognizable,
boundaries.
11
In a very
The
and
�A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom" January 16, 1786
WELL AWARE that the opinions
and belief of men depend not
on their own will, but follow involuntarily the evidence proposed to
their minds; that Almighty God hath
created the mind free, and manifested
his supreme will that free it shall remain by making it altogether insusceptible of restraint; that all attempts
to influence it by temporal punish-
ments, or burthens, or by civil incapacitations, tend only to beget habits
of hypocrisy and meanness, and are
a departure from the plan of the holy
author of our religion, who being lord
both of body and mind, yet chose not
to propagate it by coercions on either,
as was in his Almighty power to do,
but to extend it by its influence on
reason alone; that the impious pre-
sumption of legislators and rulers,
civil as well as ecclesiastical, who, be-
ing themselves but fallible and uninspired men, have assumed dominion
over the faith of others, setting up
their own opinions and modes of
thinking as the only true and infalli-
ble, and as such endeavoring to impose them on others, hath established
and maintained false religions over
the greatest part of the world and
through all time: That to compel a
man to furnish contributions of
money for the propagation of opinions which he disbelieves and abhors,
is sinful and tyrannical; that even the
forcing him to support this or that
teacher of his own religious persuasion, is depriving him of the comfortable liberty of giving his contributions
to the particular pastor whose morals
he would make his pattern, and whose
powers he feels most persuasive to
righteousness; and is withdrawing
from the ministry those temporary re-
wards, which proceeding from an ap-
acts against peace and good order; and
probation of their personal conduct,
are an additional incitement to earnest
finally, that truth is great and will pre-
and unremitting labours for the instruction of mankind; that our civil
rights have no dependance on our re-
ligious opinions, any more than our
opinions in physics or geometry; that
therefore the proscribing any citizen
as unworthy the public confidence by
laying upon him an incapacity of being
called to offices of trust and emolu-
ment, unless he profess or renounce
this or that religious opinion, is de-
priving him injuriously of those privileges and advantages to which, in
common with his fellow citizens, he
has a natural right; that it tends also
to corrupt the principles of that very
religion it is meant to encourage, by
vail if left to herself; that she is the
proper and sufficient antagonist to er-
ror, and has nothing to fear from the
conflict unless by human interposition
disarmed of her natural weapons, free
argument and debate; errors ceasing
to be dangerous when it is permitted
freely to contradict them.
WE THE General Assembly of Virginia do enact that no man shall
be compelled to frequent or support
any religious worship, place, or min-
istry whatsoever, nor shall be en-
forced, restrained, molested, or bur thened in his body or goods, nor shall
otherwise suffer, on account of his re-
ligious opinions or belief; but that all
bribing, with a monopoly of worldly men shall be free to profess, and by
honours and emoluments, those who
argument to maintain, their opinions
will externally profess and conform to
it; that though indeed these are crim-
inal who do not withstand such temptation, yet neither are those innocent
in matters of religion, and that the
same shall in no wise diminish, en-
large, or affect their civil capacities.
who lay the bait in their way; that the AND THOUGH we well know
opinions of men are not the object of
civil government, nor under its juris-
diction; that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the
field of opinion and to restrain the
profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tend-
ency is a dangerous fallacy, which at
once destroys all religious liberty, because he being of course judge of that
tendency will make his opinions the
rule of judgment, and approve or con-
demn the sentiments of others only
as they shall square with or differ
from his own; that it is time enough
for the rightful purposes of civil gov-
that this Assembly, elected by
the people for the ordinary purposes
of legislation only, have no power to
restrain the acts of succeeding Assem-
blies, constituted with powers equal
to our own, and that therefore to declare this act irrevocable would be of
no effect in law; yet we are free to
declare, and do declare, that the rights
hereby asserted are of the natural
rights of mankind, and that if any act
shall be hereafter passed to repeal the
present or to narrow its operation,
such act will be an infringement of
natural right. it
ernment for its officers to interfere
when principles break out into overt
5
�concrete way, the cession helped to define what Virginians meant
by ' Virginia.'"
For
which
the
central government the cessions
strengthened
the
The United States at last had property which it owned and
union.
it
could
sell
to
raise much
needed
There
revenue.
was
now
the stimulating prospect of expansion of the United States to the
west by the creation of new,
free,
and
equal
Congress
states.
would soon begin work on plans for laying out states which
culminated
in the
great Northwest Ordinance
of
1787.
Perhaps the greatest significance for the new nation in the
western lands debates was the growing realization that there was,
in fact,
an
authentic national
interest that
could
exist
If
alongside the jealously guarded rights of the states.
union were
to
be
preserved
and
strengthened,
the
states
the
would
have to give up something in order to gain the greater benefit of
It
stability and harmony between and among themselves.
was
this
lesson that would begin to permeate the thinking of those who
sought
ways
to protect
the
interests
of
the
several states
while
at the same time correcting weaknesses in the Confederation.
The
cession of Virginia' s lands thus pointed clearly toward the
miracle"
5.
at
Philadelphia
in
1787.
What. was ..the :significance for the nation of the .. truggle ..n
s
i
Vir.
ainia.,to separate
church and state?
It is probable that the leading social issue in the 1780s in
Virginia was the effort to end
of Virginia and the government
what
the
Virginia,
late
George
wrote
in
J.
the close ties between the church
We should note here
of the state.
registrar of the diocese of
Cleaveland,
1976:
At the first legislative assembly of the House of Burgesses
held in the Jamestown Church in 1619, the real legal
No minister
establishment of the Church of Virginia began.
voice,
or vote in that session of the
was allowed a seat,
Assembly, and throughout all the colonial period that denial
of ministerial capability to sit in the House of Burgesses
maintained .
so in 1619 and in ensuing sessions of
the General Assembly up to and after 1776, the Church in
was
Virginia became
in
law the
Church of
Virginia.
Up to the time of the American Revolution the Church of
Virginia was usually spoken of as the Church,
Law
Established,
the
Established
Church,
the Church by
and the
Church
of
Virginia.
You are familiar with the controversy that developed as
dissenting religious groups became more numerous and more vocal
in Virginia prior to the Revolution.
1)
the freedom to
wanted two things:
In brief,
these
dissenters
establish
their
own
12
�churches,
own
call
their
own
solemnize marriages by their
ministers,
2)
and worship in their own church buildings;
ministers,
to
be free from taxation to support the church of Virginia or the
established
Many dissenters simply hoped to gain
Once
church.
toleration for their right to exist and to worship.
that
step was achieved, the struggle could be many dissenters who
broadened to end the
there were
enforced
taxation.
However,
favored some form of state taxation for support of religious
groups so long as the money raised was given to the religious
group the individual taxpayer selected.
Against this background it is instructive to look again at
Article XVI of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, the principal
author of which was George Mason.
I think it is helpful to place
in parallel columns the original article as drafted by Mason and
the article
as
finally approved.
Virginia Declaration
of
Mason! s.. Draft
18. "
That religion,
the
Article
of
or
and
the
manner
our
all
men
violence;
should
the
exercise
of
the
religion,
unpunished
unless
under
the happiness,
manner
therefore,
free
exercise
of
and that it is the
Christian forbearance,
color
love,
and charity towards each
other."
or
is the mutual duty of all to
Christian
forbearance,
charity,
love,
all
religion,
safety of society, and that it
practice
of
be
mutual duty of all to practice
of religion, any man disturb
the peace,
and,
conscience;
and
unrestrained by the
magistrate,
the
according to the dictates of
according to the dictates of
conscience,
and
men are equally entitled to
enjoy the fullest toleration
in
Creator,
discharging it,
directed only by reason and
conviction, not by force or
only by reason and conviction,
not by force or violence; and
that
Religion,
can
discharging it can be directed
therefore,
That
XVI. "
or the duty which we owe to
duty which we owe to our
CREATOR,
Right$
and
towards each other."
The alteration in the words of this article is significant.
As originally drafted by George Mason, the article uses the
authority of the state to guarantee that " all men should enjoy
The
the fullest toleration in the exercise of religion . ."
implication here is that the state has the power, the
authority as it were, to grant toleration.
religious
But if the state has
the power to grant toleration, the further implication is that
the state is granting toleration to those who are not
participants in the religious group connected to the state,
this case the church of Virginia.
To put it another way,
13
in
the
�clause as drafted by Mason seems to support the continuation of
the idea that the church of Virginia enjoyed a favorable position
in its
relation to state authority.
The change in language in this article is the result of
Madison was on the committee to
In
review Mason' s draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights.
He wanted to
Madison' s view, the article did not go far enough.
James Madison' s
influence.
Madison wanted
go beyond mere toleration granted by the state.
to establish the principle that " all men are equally entitled to
the free exercise of religion" because it is an inalienable
right.
It is not a right granted to the individual by the state,
because it is a right that is fundamental to all men to exercise
according
was
to the AirfnfaQ of
12,
revision
The adoption of the Virginia Declaration of Rights
accepted.
on June
Madison' s
rnnsrience."
1776,
with
its Article
XVI,
established
in written
form the principle that religious freedom is an individual right
and not something granted by the state.
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison were of like mind on this
As
question.
J.
R.
Pole has
recently written, "
Jefferson
and
were passionately opposed to all forms of religious
Madison . . .
there was no subject in public life about which
Professor Pole goes on to
Jefferson felt more strongly."
establishment:
observe:
It would be quite wrong to think that this principle [ the
complete separation of church and state] arose from atheism.
Jefferson was deeply religious in the sense of believing
that God had created all things,
including the moral
of the world ( which was part of the natural order).
order
He
did
not believe in the divinity of Christ, but he seemed to
believe
in the moral values of Christianity.
Madison
was
a
former Princeton student of theology and perhaps had a more
Christian disposition.
conscience,
Both men believed in liberty of
a belief that sprang from a firm conviction that
No man could therefore impose
consciences were equal.
his beliefs upon others from his own sense of the evidence.
all
Forced
was
religious belief
was
not
and
religion at all- -
true
it
in fact a form of blasphemy against God.
The adoption of the Virginia Declaration of Rights did not
automatically end persecution of dissenters in Virginia.
As
late
as 1778 dissenters were still being imprisoned in Virginia.
Something more
was
required.
Jefferson and Madison had two goals
religious freedom for all men,
separation
of
church
and
state.
in mind.
The
first
was
and the second was total
The
first
goal
was
given
expression in Article XVI of the Virginia Declaration of Rights.
The second goal was expressed in the Statute for Religious
Freedom written principally by Jefferson in 1777.
14
The
statute
�was drawn up in Fredericksburg in January 1777 by a committee
7Th
appointed by the General Assembly to draft a major revision of
the
state' s
laws.
The
committee members were
Thomas
Jefferson,
Thomas Ludwell Lee, George Mason, Edmund Pendleton, and George
Wythe.
George Cleaveland has made the point that " these men,
churchmen
all,
action could,
drew up the statute which,
as far as legislative
made forever certain religious liberty as the right
let it be remembered that it was members
of every Virginian .
of the established church of Virginia, now the Episcopal Church,
who wrote that law,
and that it was a General Assembly
predominantly of Episcopal churchmen who enacted it into law."
Dr.
Cleaveland believes that " the statute was probably a
composite
of
the
views
of
all
the members
of
the
committee .
Jefferson claimed authorship of the statute, and he surely had a
vital part in its production, but it seems highly likely that
Mason had a part in its production.
The preamble was probably
Jefferson as well as the final paragraph."
While
Jefferson was
governor of Virginia
in
1779,
the bill
was introduced in his behalf in the Virginia General Assembly by
John
Harvie.
Thus
began
a
struggle that Jefferson
the most bitter political contest of his career.
almost eight years, many debates,
described as
It
would
take
and much bitter controversy
before the statute, termed " A Bill for Establishing Religious
Freedom,"
16,
was passed by the Virginia General Assembly on January
1786.
In
the
same
year,
1779,
in which the
statute was
introduced,
the Virginia General Assembly repealed all taxes for the support
of
religion.
However,
the
church of Virginia
still
had
a
role
to
The vestries continued to exercise their old
play in Virginia.
colonial responsibilities of caring for the poor and looking
after
orphans
in the parishes.
In
addition,
the
church
maintained control of the glebe lands, public property granted in
the colonial period by the Crown for support of ministers.
The strategy,
if it can be called such,
was for
church of
Virginia members (
Episcopalians) to dig in to fight the loss of
revenue from the state by allying themselves to other
denominations.
support
of
Their goal was to enact state taxation for the
In
religious groups on a non -denominational basis.
the spring of 1784, the House of Delegates committee on religion
issued a report in support of a general assessment for religious
While
purposes.
the tax was to benefit all
religious
groups,
it
would have the effect of strengthening the position of the
Episcopal church and probably would continue the semblance of a
connection between the state and the Episcopal church.
At first
Episcopalians and Presbyterians were allied in support of the
Assessment
Bill,
while
Baptists
led
the fight
against
it.
The
bill as introduced in December 1784 provided that each taxpayer
had the right to specify which clergyman his taxes were to
support;
those who did not
choose to support a
15
clergyman or a
�religious group could designate their tax for the support of
secular
education.
The General Assembly adjourned without taking
action on the Assessment
Bill
in
1784.
James Madison' s strategy was to delay action on the
Assessment Bill until popular sentiment swung against it.
strategy worked
A friend
perfectly.
Nicholas of Albemarle County,
of
Jefferson,
The
George
suggested to Madison that an
outpouring of popular petitions might turn the tide against the
Madison liked
measure.
the
idea
so well
that he
drafted
in
the
spring of 1785 his classic statement on religion and the state
A Memorial
entitled "
and
Remonstrance."
This " Remonstrance"
against the Assessment Bill was printed and widely circulated in
Presbyterians,
now alarmed by the pL Vb} JtL L Vf
Virginia.
continued Episcopal
influence,
joined
Baptists
to
fight
the
bill.
The outpouring of sentiment against the Assessment Bill was quite
The House of Delegates received over 100 petitions
from 48 of the 72 counties in the state.
The names in opposition
on these petitions numbered over 10, 000;
those names in favor
remarkable.
numbered only around 1, 200.
By the fall 1785 session of the
The petitions in
General Assembly the Assessment Bill was dead.
support of the bill came
Neck and from Southside.
from the lower region of the Northern
Opposition came from all over the
state.
Madison,
reintroduced
the
capitalizing on the momentum of the moment,
the
Statute
statute without
for
change
modified
the
preamble,
document
and deserves
Religious
Freedom.
on December
the
The
1785.
The
House
passed
Senate
accepted the modification.
The revised statute was passed on January 16, 1786, entitled " A
It is a landmark
Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom."
these
and
20,
to be
House
reprinted
in full
as
an appendix to
notes.
The significance of this has been well summarized by
Professors
Keith
Crim
and
Thomas
0.
Hall,
Jr.,
as
follows:
The idea of a state church established by law and supported by
taxes gave way to the idea of a quasi -state church, preeminent in
influence
and prestige,
then
to
the
idea
of
state
support
for
all
and finally to the principle set forth in the
This
Virginia Statute for Establishing Religious Freedom. . . .
was a remarkable statement in view of the dark history of
religious
groups,
religious
strife."
Virginia had separated church and state, but on the national
scene the principle was an important issue in the debates over
The final
the ratification of the proposed Constitution of 1787.
called to consider the
act of the Virginia Convention of 1788,
new Constitution, was to approve on June 27 certain proposed
amendments
to the Constitution, and to recommend
first Congress.
The Virginia resolution began:
16
them to
the
�Videlicet:
That there be a Declaration or Bill of Rights asserting
and securing from encroachment the essential and unalienable
Rights of the People in some such manner as the following;
our
Twentieth, That
Creator,
and the
religion or the duty which we owe to
manner of discharging it can be
directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or
violence,
and
therefore all men have
an equal,
natural
and
unalienable right to the free exercise of religion according
to the dictates of conscience, and that no particular
religious sect or society ought to be favored or established
by Law in preference to others.
When the new Congress under the Constitution convened, James
Madison was instrumental in the introduction of the first ten
amendments,
adopted
in
the " Bill
1791,
imprint on them.
of
Rights."
When these
amendments were
it can be said that they had a clear Virginia
The First Amendment to the United
Constitution is a tribute to Jefferson,
Madison,
States
but above all,
it is a monument to the memory of George Mason.
6.
How did Virginia- Maryland controversies ,hel.p . reveal
weaknesses . in„ t.
h.e Articles of Confederation?
It can perhaps be said that of all the strands in early
American history which were brought together at Philadelphia in
1787,
none was more important than that which began with the
Maryland Charter
of
1632.
In that year,
Cecilius Calvert,
the
second Lord Baltimore, received a charter from Ring Charles I
granting him a large area of land north of Virginia.
Under the
charter Maryland claimed territorial control of the Potomac River
including the southern shore,
or
the
Virginia side
of
the
river.
The Virginia Constitution of 1776 recognized the claims of
Maryland to the southern shore of the Potomac.
Just why the
authors of the Constitution of 1776 agreed to this is not clear.
However,
the Virginia Constitution of 1776
also claimed
that
Virginia had free navigation rights on both the Potomac and
Pocomoke
rivers.
By 1784 James Madison was sufficiently
concerned about this oversight that he was ready to approach
Maryland to see if an agreement could be made giving to Virginia
control of its side of the Potomac River.
You will recall that Maryland had refused to sign the
Articles of Confederation until Virginia ceded its claims to
western
1781.
of
lands.
Once
that
was
accomplished,
Maryland
signed
in
Maryland and Virginia were two of the strongest supporters
congressional
authority under
the Articles of Confederation.
Both states consistently sent to Congress delegations who were
17
�Both states consistently sent to Congress delegations who were
Nationalist /Creditor
in their
That is,
outlook.
they favored
strengthening the powers of the central government particularly
in the
regulation and
control
of
The Virginia
commerce.
and
Maryland delegates to Congress believed there were two main flaws
in the Articles of Confederation; the first was lack of power to
impose uniform taxes on all
the
Congress' s lack of power over
The
states.
second
flaw was
interstate and foreign commerce.
Although Virginia and Maryland delegates supported
unsuccessful efforts in the Confederation Congress to correct
these flaws - for example, an amendment to the Articles of
Confederation in 1781 giving Congress the power to levy a duty of
5 percent on the value of all goods imported into the United
States;
in 1784, a Congressional request to the states for
pass navigation acts to protect American shipping
and,
the power
to
of fifteen years - -their efforts were frustrated by
opinion in other states, as well as in the minds of many
that these were policies which would
Virginians and Marylanders,
In the absence of
give too much power to the national Congress.
states were left to make their own
any national policy,
for
a
period
Many of them did,
arrangements.
themselves
used
this
to settle
commercial
including signing pacts between
disputes.
Virginia
and
Maryland
approach.
In the
summer
of
1784 a proposal was made
in the Virginia
General Assembly to invite Maryland to join Virginia in naming
commissioners
to meet to discuss
joint matters
The four
Potomac.
of concern
Virginia
relating to commerce on the
commissioners were an Alexandria merchant, Archibald Henderson,
The Maryland
James Madison, George Mason,
and Edmund Randolph.
Assembly chose Samuel Chase,
Johnson,
It
and
is
Thomas
Daniel of St.
Thomas Jenifer,
Thomas
Stone.
important
to note that the
instructions
to the
Virginia delegates by the Virginia Assembly focused narrowly on
The Maryland delegates, on
conflicting claims about the Potomac.
other hand,
were asked to pursue a much wider range of issues
the
the
Pocomoke
River,
the need to survey and divide jurisdiction
over the Chesapeake Bay,
disagreements
March
over
customs duties,
lighthouses, and coastal
shore rights,
navigation,
defense.
Maryland proposed a place and date, Alexandria, the week of
21,
1785,
Governor Patrick Henry received
for the meeting.
this proposal,
but he was not in sympathy with providing
Nationalist /Creditors with an opportunity to work out trade
regulations
in
secret.
He conveniently neglected to notify the
Virginia commissioners of the place and date of the meeting.
When the Maryland commissioners came to Alexandria on March 21,.
1785,
there were no Virginia representatives
18
to meet them.
�At this juncture,
Henderson and Mason tried to recover from
the embarrassment by agreeing to go ahead themselves to confer
with the Marylanders.
Hearing of the confusion, General
Washington invited them to Mount Vernon.
With Washington acting
as a gracious but non - participatory host,
on March 25,
1785.
the
conference
convened
Washington was by no means disinterested.
He
was deeply involved in encouraging the development of
transportation and commercial links between the
Chesapeake / Potomac basin and the Allegheny Mountains beyond to
the Ohio River Valley.
Encouraged by Washington' s interest and
hospitality, the commissioners reached a wide- ranging agreement
and
adjourned
on
March
28,
1785.
In their report the commissioners recommended that Virginia
and Maryland agree jointly on common fishing rights in the
Chesapeake Bay, along with the erection of lighthouses, beacons,
and buoys; they proposed the establishment of naval offices; the
Potomac River was declared a common waterway not just for
Virginia and Maryland, but for all of the other states; they
recommended that import and export duties be uniform for both
states and they established a proportional scale of duties when
ships and cargo were brought to ports in both states.
They dealt
with monetary issues by recommending that the currency of the two
states be equal in value and that foreign coin and currency be
given a common value in the two states.
The importance of the Mt. Vernon Conference of 1785 is that
two states provided a model to deal with common trade,
navigation, debt, monetary, and jurisdictional problems on a
broader scale than simply two states settling their differences.
Many of their recommendations had a national character; in fact,
they showed that even with the best of wills, two states acting
jointly could provide only for a local solution when a broader,
national
solution
was
required.
The Virginia Assembly at its next session approved the Mt.
Vernon Conference recommendations without debate.
Madison was
the adroit floor and committee leader in this smooth passage.
The Maryland Assembly considered the Mt. Vernon report as soon as
the
fall
session opened.
The Marylanders
added even more
resolutions to the basic agreement reached at Mt.
Vernon.
Most
importantly, they endorsed the recommendation of the Mt. Vernon
Compact that there be annual meetings to discuss common problems
and that Delaware and Pennsylvania should be invited.
The
Maryland Assembly approved the Mt. Vernon report on November 22,
1785,
and sent it on with the additional resolutions to the
Virginia Assembly.
The Virginia Assembly in the fall of 1785 devoted much time
to the whole question of trade and the authority to regulate both
foreign and domestic commerce.
Among the issues dividing the
19
�Assembly were proposals on both sides of the question; one to
give greater authority to the Congress;
with
a
unilateral
with the Mt.
resolutions
commerce
bill.
the other to go ahead
Against
this
background,
and
Vernon Compact and the additional Maryland
in hand,
John Tyler brought forward a resolution
to broaden the Maryland proposal for a conference limited to a
few states.
With the support of Madison,
Tyler' s resolution
called for commissioners from Virginia to meet with commissioners
from all of the other states in a convention " to examine the
relative
situations and trade
of the
States;
to
consider
how far
a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary
Tyler' s
to their common interest and permanent harmony."
resolution was passed by the Virginia Assembly on January 21,
1786, the last day of the session.
It provided
for
invitations
to be issued to all of the other states to meet the following
September.
The purpose of the meeting was to draft a new
amendment giving Congress power to regulate commerce or, in the
words of the resolution, " a Meeting of Politico Commercial
Commissioners from all the States for the purpose of digesting
and reporting the requisite augmentation of the power of Congress
over
trade."
Almost without realizing it, the tactic of using state
action to bring about change in the government under the Articles
of Confederation was evolving.
Philadelphia
in 1787,
unfolding drama.
Before it reached its climax in
there was one more scene to play out in the
This was the Annapolis Convention.
The Virginia Assembly named eight representatives to the
Annapolis meeting.
The House chose Walter Jones, James Madison,
Edmund Randolph, Meriwether Smith, and St. George Tucker.
The
Senate picked George Mason, William Ronald, and David Ross.
These Virginia commissioners decided that the " Convention" ( the
name apparently given to the meeting by Edmund Randolph)
should
meet in Annapolis on the first Monday in September 1786.
Eight
other states responded favorably to the Virginia invitation.
Those who promised to send delegates were Delaware,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina,
Pennsylvania,
and
Rhode
Island.
Four
states
refused.
Connecticut had been troubled by internal popular challenges to
the legislature' s authority; its legislature did not want to
appear willing to subvert the legally established Congress of the
Confederation by supporting a " popular convention" to undermine
Congress.
South Carolina had given its approval to an act giving
Congress the power to regulate commerce for fifteen years and
felt this was sufficient indication of its support.
Georgia
never accepted the Virginia invitation.
The most embarrassing abstention was Maryland' s.
The
Maryland House of Delegates chose eleven strong nationalists, but
Conservative Marylanders,
the Senate refused to go along.
feared that the authority of Congress
especially Charles Carroll,
20
�would be severely weakened by state -sponsored conventions such as
the one proposed for Annapolis.
The Senate wanted to restrict
all Maryland meetings to discussions of controversies with
neighboring Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.
legislature could not resolve its differences,
and
The Maryland
no
commissioners were chosen.
By the time this occurred it was too
late to cancel the conference, and, in fact, the momentum was too
strong to halt.
When the commissioners assembled at Mann' s Tavern in
Annapolis on September 11, 1786, only five states were
represented.
Delaware, New Jersey, and Virginia each had three
commissioners
present.
and Alexander Hamilton.
Coxe.
never
New York' s delegates were Egbert Benson
Pennsylvania was represented by Tench
What was said during the two days they met will perhaps
be known.
They kept no records, and their correspondence
reveals almost nothing about their deliberations.
said,
Although we will never know exactly what they thought and
we can surmise as follows:
they were dismayed at the low
attendance because this gave the meeting very little credibility;
because a handful more would still not give the needed weight to
they chose not to wait a few days for more delegates to arrive
their deliberations; they were heartened that, at least, nine
states had supported the idea of a meeting and five states were
actually represented; this suggested that the time for reform of
the Confederation was fast approaching; they concluded that the
for still another meeting but to word the call so that the
broadest reform might be undertaken at a subsequent convention.
To draft their report they turned to Alexander Hamilton who had
most effective action they could take would be to issue a call
long Articles of Confederation.
been an advocate of a convention to make sweeping changes in
the
undue
Hamilton' s report was carefully worded so as not to arouse
apprehension.
Nevertheless,
the Annapolis Convention
report proposed that the state legislatures choose delegates to a
convention called " to devise such further provisions as shall
appear to them necessary to render the constitution of the
Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union."
Virginia' s issues.to the Annapolis meeting had stressed commercial
call
and trade
The significance of the Annapolis Convention
report is that it radically transformed that narrow agenda into
one that would permit amending the Articles of Confederation.
Once that might was made.
door be opened, there was no way to limit what
revisions
It has been said that the Annapolis Convention delegates
were either brilliant analysts of political moods who shrewdly
calculated what was likely to happen at a second convention or
they were frustrated, worried men who threw caution to the wind
21
�and boldly gambled that they and the country had nothing to lose
by proposing an avenue for sweeping governmental change.
Whichever is true, it certainly can be said that when they
1786,
adjourned on September 14,
they had achieved two major
things:
they had gone so far as to name a place and date for
the
next convention, Philadelphia, the second Monday in May 1787; and
they had proposed guidelines for the convention' s deliberations
that would permit
7.
changes of enormous importance.
WhatissuesMvided. the .delegates ..
to..the. Vir.
giniaCanvention
in Richmond . in. June. 17887
of
of
the
2 and 27, 1788, one
the entire history
There occurred in Richmond between June
the most remarkable political meetings in
called
United
to
Before
States.
review
some
This was the Virginia Convention of 1788,
States.
consider
the
proposed
we discuss the
basic
Constitution
of
the
United
issues that divided them,
let us
background.
By the time the Virginia Convention convened,
eight
state
ratifying conventions had approved the new Constitution- Delaware,
Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts,
approve
the
new
was
Hampshire,
and
Georgia,
Connecticut,
Nine
Carolina.
were
needed
to
Opponents of the Constitution were strongest in
New
North Carolina, and Rhode Island.
Opposition to the Constitution
state.
York,
Virginia was the key
very strong in Virginia;
if the opponents succeeded
the new plan of
government,
decisive
in
factor
There
South
Ratification by the remaining states
proposal.
uncertain.
New
New Jersey,
Maryland,
were 170
each of Virginia' s
representatives;
the
Virginia' s
Constitution' s
delegates
84
counties
Thus,
was
in defeating
example could well be the
defeat.
elected to the Convention of 1788- was
entitled
to
Norfolk and Williamsburg were
two
given one each.
They met in the New Academy on Shockoe Hill, and for three weeks
they debated the new Constitution in what was probably the most
brilliant and incisive analysis of the document by any of the
The debates were passionate,
in the several states.
and the outcome was uncertain.
Far - ranging discussions on the
proposed Constitution had taken place in Virginia for several
months before the Convention of 1788.
The two sides - -for and
It was known
against - were fairly clearly defined by June 1788.
conventions
that the outcome depended on how some
ten or
a dozen men who were
undecided finally voted.
The debates were written down by David Robertson, a notable
reporter.
His record is probably close to a verbatim
shorthand
account of the inspired exchanges.
Several years later, in
Jonathan Elliot published a five volume edition of all the
proceedings in the several state ratifying conventions.
1828,
Volume
II of the series, pebates..,
o.f,. e V..
th,
irgini, Convee,ti.
a.
ou, comprises
487 pages.
It is considered to be the best of all the reports in
22
�the five- volume
series.
Anyone interested in understanding the
depth of feeling on both sides of the Constitution can do no
better than to read this record of the Virginia Convention.
Brilliance of intellect, spirited articulation of viewpoint,
and political tactical skill were almost equal on both sides.
Those who supported the Constitution called themselves
Federalists; their leaders were James Madison and Edmund
Pendleton.
Arrayed with Madison and Pendleton were Edmund
Randolph, George Wythe,
James Innes, Henry Lee, John Marshall,
Francis Corbin, and George Nicholas.
Madison carried the main
burden of Federalist defense of the Constitution.
Federalists did not
speak
often,
in fact,
The
other
only about six men on
e they s de did the talking throughout the Convention.
Convention was filled with silent participants;
149
The
delegates
said nothing in the debates during the twenty -five days of the
Federalists dominated
meeting.
the Shenandoah Valley,
Opponents
Federalists.
Southwest,
in Tidewater,
the Northern Neck,
and the Alleghenies.
of the Constitution were known as Anti Their strongholds were in Southside Virginia,
The
and Kentucky.
Piedmont,
north of
the
the
James,
was
a
mixed area with both Anti -Federalist and Federalist pockets of
The Anti -Federalists
strength.
leader,
Patrick Henry.
possessed
the
The delegates listened to Henry for fully
one fourth of the time of the Convention.
George Mason,
William Grayson,
Harrison,
James
and
most dramatic
Allied with him were
Richard Henry Lee,
Benjamin
Monroe.
What were the factors or
characteristics that influenced a
man to be Federalist or Anti -Federalist in Virginia by 1788?
number of historians have studied this question, among them,
Richard Beeman,
K.
Risjord.
Forrest McDonald,
Jackson Turner Main,
A
and Norman
Their conclusions may be summarized as follows:
wealth tended to be about equal on the two sides;
eastern
Virginia Federalists were generally wealthier than Anti Federalists,
but western Virginia Federalists included many who
were less well- to -do.
The result was
state the two sides tended to balance
that
spread
over
the entire
in total wealth.
Professor Main has written persuasively to support his
thesis that there was a notable consistency throughout the 1780s
in the political positions taken by opposing factions in
Virginia,
and,
indeed,
the
other
states
as
well.
Main has used
the terms Cosmopolitan and Localist to describe these two general
groups.
and
He
general
argues
that
the
social /economic
backgrounds,
attitudes,
positions
the
viewpoints,
Cosmopolitans
led
them to become Federalists in support of the Constitution.
the other hand, Localists, who could be defined by their
On
characteristics
in the 1780s,
of
tended to
become
Anti -Federalists
in the debates over the proposed plan of government.
23
�Cosmopolitans in Virginia were likely to live north of a
line drawn from Norfolk northwest through Orange County and
across
the Blue
Ridge.
This group contained a few more wealthy
men and slightly fewer small landholders than did the Localists.
Professional
men -- merchants,
likely to be in this group.
lawyers,
physicians - were
more
Men of education seemed slightly
more favorable to the Cosmopolitan position.
Men who
had
served
in Congress and as officers in the Continental Line belonged more
Religion and intellectual
often than not to this group.
interests were not that important; however, there was some
predilection for the Cosmopolitan group by Episcopalians.
This
group contained large, prosperous commercial farmers and
planters.
Many, if not most, of the Cosmopolitans had a broad
perspective; they had an extra=Virginia contact whether by birth,
through commercial
connections,
travel,
or
education
abroad.
There were more men of non -English stock in this group in
Virginia than in the opposing group.
combined
agricultural
and
commercial
Cosmopolitans
often
pursuits.
Those whom Main describes as Localists developed a sense of
They tended to vote together
identity as the 1780s progressed.
on the issues raised in the Virginia Assembly, and they
represented the areas that were strongly Anti -Federalist in 17871788.
It is helpful
to consider the occupations of the two
groups:
Cosmopolitang
and
40
9%
41%
39%
34%
14%
18%
Lawyers
Planters ( owners
or
37%
8%
Merchants
Locals
of
1, 000 acres
slaves)
Farmers
Other
nonfarmers
As
we
have
of
the
James
as
planters
noted,
River.
or
some
notable
less
intellectual,
on
somewhat
Localist
leaders lived south
They were nearly all engaged in agriculture
farmers.
with
a
the principal
Localist
exceptions,
and
range
and
their
supporters,
were probably less well educated,
possessed
restricted
leaders
of
a
more
provincial
outlook
experience.
based
By birth and
family, Localists were stronger in their Virginia roots than were
the Cosmopolitans.
Localists' military service was more likely
to have been in the Virginia militia; if they had served in the
Continental Army, they were not among the higher ranking
officers.
When the Convention of 1788
divided almost equally.
There
opened,
were
86
24
the delegates were
votes
felt
to
be
�reasonably certain for the Federalist side.
his Anti -Federalist allies
against the Constitution.
were
thought to
However,
definitely uncommitted delegates,
waverers
in both
It was
camps
the
80
votes
not only were there the four
but also there were some
who might be
clear even before
Patrick Henry and
muster
swayed
in
their
Convention first
support.
convened that
the Anti -Federalists would try to weaken or kill the document by
introducing amendments.
Their strategy was to insist that the
document
not be
approved unless
these
amendments
were
attached.
They did not want a straight vote on the Constitution as
presented without any changes.
They did not want to leave to
chance or the whims of a future Congress
amendments perceived to be necessary for
rights (
point).
a
the introduction of
the protection of state
Henry' s main point) or individual liberties ( Mason'
Further,
their strategy was to prolong the debate,
decision,
and hope that
acceptance
of
amendments
or,
their
s
main
delay
frustration and attrition would lead to
proposed
even better,
outright
rejection
of
the
proposed
Constitution.
The Federalist strategy was equally clear.
They must
prevent any amendments from being attached to the proposed
Constitution.
This would imply that Virginia' s ratification was
George Washington,
conditional.
although not
a delegate,
was
particularly strong in his view that amendments or conditions
prove fatal.
Other states that had already ratified the
might
document without amendments would be disgruntled to have to
reconsider the document with Virginia' s proposed amendments.
Those states that had not ratified might use the proposed
Constitution
with
altogether.
However,
accept, proposals
amendments
for
as
a
pretext
to
reject
the
plan
the Virginia Federalists were willing to
changes
or
amendments
After
ratification.
By making clear their willingness to listen to proposals for
to
changes,
states
promise to work for them, and
agree, the Virginia Federalists
to
Henry' s
to
did
encourage
much
to
stand.
The
Convention was
Pendleton,
a
called
Federalist,
was
to
order
elected
on June
president.
2,
1788.
When
the chair, as he did several times to serve as a
the committee of the whole, George Wythe presided.
George
Mason
proposed
and
it
was
agreed
that
the
Edmund
Pendleton
left
in
other
undercut
spokesman
On June 3,
Convention
examine carefully and debate separately every section of the
Constitution.
Madison
and
his
Federalist
colleagues
accepted
this proposal readily because it would fit their strategy of
focusing on the Constitution rather than on amendments.
Patrick Henry,
about
the
threats
however,
he
saw in
preferred
the
to
proposed
speak
in
general
document.
He
terms
launched
his attack on the third day of the Convention and laid out the
arguments
he would
use
for
the
next weeks
25
of
debate.
In Henry' s
�This proposal of altering our Federal government is of a
nature.
You ought to be extremely cautious,
watchful,
jealous of your liberty; for instead of securing your
rights,
If this new government will
you may lose them forever.
view, "
most
alarming
not come up to the expectation of the people, and they should be
their liberty will be lost, and tyranny must and
disappointed,
will
arise."
Henry objected vigorously to the wording of the
Constitution' s preamble.
He challenged the
Constitution, " Who authorized them to speak
framers of
the
the language of, We
the, people instead of We.... the. s.
tates ?" According to Henry, " If
the states be not the agents of this compact, it must be one
great,
the
consolidated,
states."
national
government,
of
the
people
of
all
Henry' s tactic was to alarm as many segments of society as
he could about the dangers he saw in the Constitution.
planters,
small
debtor
farmers,
slaveholders,
people
of
Large
the
Valley and the Trans -Allegheny country - all were given reasons
why they were threatened individually and as a group by the terms
of
the
document.
control the army;
He feared the power of the executive who would
the House of Representatives did not contain
enough Virginia representatives
and
the
South would be
dominated
by the North;
the power of the Senate to make treaties posed the
threat of foreign influence in Virginia' s affairs; he argued that
the control of the military by the central government would
produce tyranny.
In summary, Henry feared that Virginia was
giving up too much authority over its own affairs to the new
Federal
government.
Henry was joined in the debate on June 4 by George Mason,
at
age sixty -three the most intellectually brilliant mind on the
side.
Mason argued forcibly that the conversion
Anti -Federalist
of the confederation government into a consolidated government
would result in the virtual annihilation of the state
governments.
Mason did not see how powers could be divided
between the central government and the states; the central
government would be much more powerful than the states and the
latter would be overwhelmed.
Henry returned to the fray on June 5 in a speech that lasted
hours.
He was to speak many times again, but this speech
several
included all
of his main points.
Men must
always
be
instinctively suspicious of governments and those who were
ambitious to hold political power.
Henry acknowledged that the
new government would have the needed power to control civil
unrest,
but the greater danger, in his view, was that the
government would become tyrannical in the exercise of its
authority.
His
dominant theme
was power - -who would possess
it
and how would it be exercised.
Henry dismissed the checks and
balances of the Constitution as weak and ephemeral.
He subjected
the proposed document to a full scale attack ranging over the
entire
document.
26
�In later debates, Henry and Mason were joined by William
Grayson and James Monroe in opposition.
Grayson was strongly
suspicious of the appointive power and the creation of hundreds
of jobs under the new central government.
He argued, "
Is there
any clause to hinder them from giving offices to uncles, nephews,
brothers and other relations and friends ?" Mason warned that
the Vice President . [
was] not only an unnecessary but a
dangerous officer."
They were especially alarmed over the clause
giving the Supreme Court jurisdiction over all cases " arising
under the Constitution."
courts in "
their effect
the State governments."
all cases arising under
Mason feared that the power of Federal
and operation will be utterly to destroy
Grayson argued that " the jurisdiction of
the Constitution; and the laws of the
is of stupendous magnitude. .
power than any court under heaven.
Union,
to have this power . . ."
Monroe
This court has more
One set of judges ought not
could not see how Congress
could enact laws uniform and fair for the entire country.
Congress would not take into account the differing needs and
conditions
in the
several
states.
The
result
would be capricious
laws benefiting some states but not all.
The Federalist response to the arguments of Henry and his
allies was generally reasoned and low -key throughout the
Convention.
However,
with scathing
sarcasm,
Henry " Light Horse Harry ". Lee raked Henry
and Governor
Edmund
Randolph confronted
Henry in heated anger toward the end of the Convention.
Randolph who rose to reply to Henry' s opening speech.
It
was
Randolph
had been a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in
Philadelphia
in 1787.
He had refused to sign the proposed
Constitution and had circulated a public letter explaining why.
By June 1788 Randolph had reversed himself and in the Convention
He argued that without
he came out strongly for the new plan.
disunion would surely follow. Randolph then attacked Henry' s
view about
the preamble.
Plainly,
in Randolph' s
view, "
people" meant " we the people of each ratifying State."
Thursday of the first week of the Convention,
we
it
the
By
Randolph was
clearly losing his patience with Henry' s lengthy speeches in
opposition.
Randolph blasted Henry, "
If we
go
on in
this
irregular manner,
instead of three to six weeks, it will take us
six months to decide this question."
It was on Friday, June 6,
that Randolph delivered his most effective speech during the
Convention.
government,
weaknesses,
He carefully defined the flaws in the Confederation
showed how the new Constitution corrected those
and defended the powers given to the central
government as essential to the creation of a strong national
government.
Edmund Pendleton,
as presiding officer, turned aside Henry' s
early contention that the Philadelphia Convention delegates had
exceeded their authority.
Henry' s argument that the Philadelphia
Convention should only have proposed amendments to the Articles
27
�of Confederation and not written an entirely new document was met
by Pendleton' s expressed view that it didn' t matter.
According
to Pendleton, the people were the key.
The people had exercised
their sovereignty by choosing delegates in Virginia to come
together to consider the new document.
In Pendleton' s words,
The people have sent us hither to determine whether this
government be a proper one or not."
Pendleton then declared that
this was the authority upon which the Virginia Convention rested
and,
ultimately,
the
Constitution
as
well.
Pendleton
labeled
as
Henry' s contention that Americans had been contented
with the Confederation and peacefully pursuing their own
nonsense"
interests before the mischief had been done at Philadelphia.
The leading figure by far in the Virginia Federalist defense
of
the
Constitution
intended
to
was
stand for
James
Madison.
Madison
at
first had
election to the Virginia Convention,
not
but
his friends in Orange County warned him that only his presence
No
could assure a Federalist' s election in that county.
Virginian had
Convention.
done as much to
It is beyond the
prepare for the Virginia
scope of this question to
other
deal
with
Madison' s role in the years leading up to June 1788 but a list of
his key activities will suggest his absolutely essential part:
delegate
to
the
Continental
Congress;
Virginia
delegate
to the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, reporter of its
proceedings,
and generally conceded to be the " Father of the
Assembly;
author
Constitution ";
of
the
delegate
proposed
of 29
of
the
Constitution and
newspapers between
October
27,
85
the
essays written in defense
published
1787,
in
and May
collectively known as The Federalist papers.
It
to
delegate to the Annapolis Convention in 1786;
was
four New York
28, 1788,
Madison,
speaking so quietly that David Robertson the
shorthand reporter had difficulty hearing him, who refuted Henry
point by point.
Madison spoke dispassionately, logically, and
with an overwhelming command of historical background and
knowledge
of
the
proposed
Constitution.
Madison' s
principal
argument that he used many times was that the states would not be
overwhelmed by the central government.
In a remarkable and long
letter to Thomas Jefferson written from New York City on October
24,
1787,
Madison provides us
with perhaps his
most
cogent
dissection of the Constitution and his understanding of
principles of government.
It is worth quoting one
paragraph from that letter because it is an excellent summary of
Republican
the
arguments
Madison used
in
the
Virginia Convention:
This ground -work being laid,
which
presented
themselves
were
1.
the
to
great
unite
objects
a
proper
energy in the Executive and a proper stability in the
Legislative departments, with the essential characters
2.
to draw a line of
of Republican Government.
demarkation which would give to the General Government
every power
requisite for
general purposes,
28
and
leave
�to the States every power which might be most
beneficially administered by them.
3.
to provide for
the different interests of different parts of the
Union.
4.
to adjust the clashing pretensions of the
large and small States.
Each of these objects was
pregnant with difficulties.
The whole of them together
formed a task more difficult than can be well conceived
by those who were not concerned in the execution of it.
Adding to these considerations the natural diversity of
human opinions on all new and complicated subjects,
it
is impossible to consider the degree of concord which
ultimately prevailed as less than
a miracle.
Patrick Henry' s tactic of diverting the discussion from the
clause -by- clause analysis agreed to on June 3 prevailed for more
than a week.
Not until Saturday, June 14, did the Convention
take up again its scrutiny of the Constitution in each of its
sections.
were
tired,
By June 23 tempers were at the flashpoint.
Delegates
disgruntled, and weary of the debate.
By the close
of its session on Monday, June 23, the Convention had completed
its reading and debate of every sentence of the Constitution.
The last day' s session had been so acrimonious that Federalist
leaders decided the time was ripe to force the question before
the
situation worsened.
A Federalist head count indicated a slim
margin in their favor of anywhere from three to possibly six
votes.
During the protracted debates the Anti -Federalists had not
been
idle.
Henry, Mason, and Grayson had been meeting together
almost from the beginning to formulate a set of amendments to the
Constitution.
They used Mason' s Virginia Declaration of Rights
as their guide.
However,
they revised the language, dropped two
of the sections,
amendments.
and in the end developed a list of twenty
These they held in readiness for the proper time to
introduce them.
The stage was set for the first climactic day,
June
24.
Madison, with his accustomed prescience, predicted the strategy
each
side
would
use.
without amendments,
The Federalists would propose adoption
the Anti -Federalists would propose amendments
to be added before ratification, the Federalists would counter
with a proposal to ratify with the promise to recommend certain
amendments
after
ratification.
It was George Wythe who was given
the floor to speak in favor of ratification and to move the
adoption of the Constitution.
Henry responded by asking the
clerk to read two sets of amendments.
One was the list based on
Mason' s Virginia Declaration of Rights and the other was a list
of fourteen to amend " the most exceptional parts of the
Constitution."
Finally,
A handful spoke on each side of the issue.
Madison rose to save the day.
He told the delegates
that he would support most of the proposed amendments for
subsequent adoption " not because they are necessary, but because
29
�they can produce no possible danger."
Late in the afternoon of
the twenty- fourth the two sides agreed to the wording for a
The weary delegates, sensing the
resolution
of
ratification.
9: 00
Two delegates had been summoned home.
end, put off until the following day the vote on the resolution.
On June 25 the galleries were filled by the opening gavel at
The air must
A. M.
have been tense with expectation as the 168 delegates took their
George Nicholas moved immediately for followedon George
a vote immediately
John Tyler
to amend the motion by adding therefore, was s lists Henry
Patrick Henry' on the of
seats.
Wythe' s motion for ratification.
The
amendments.
first vote,
resolution, that, previous to ratification,
amendments "
a bill of rights and
ought to be referred by the Convention to the other
states in the American confederacy for their to 80. in favor.
consideration."
88 against
Henry' s amendments were defeated
The
roll was then called on the motion to ratify the Constitution
One man, David Patteson of Chesterfield County,
without
change.
switched
sides,
and the final vote was 89 in favor of
ratification to 79
opposed.
Two important matters remained.
The first was to adopt
The other was to appoint a
formally a statement of ratification. from both sides, to propose
with members
twenty- member committee,
a list of amendments that chairman, would recommend to the new
Virginia George Wythe, presented its
The committee
Congress.
recommendations on June 27,
the last day of the Convention.
The
Convention adopted the forty proposals- - the original twenty bill
of rights amendments with the addition of twenty more amendments
designed to improve specific sections of the Constitution.
Ironically, New Hampshire had become the a ninth state to
1788, by
vote of 57 to
47.
But the role
ratify the Constitution on June 21,
June 25.
Word of this had not reached Richmond by
of Virginia, largest and wealthiest of the states, was decisive.
One writer has succinctly summarized it
What did it all mean?
this
way:
in the end,
79.
Virginia ratified.
The vote was 89 to
A switch of half a dozen votes from the Madison -
Pendleton Federalists to the Henry -Mason Anti Federalists would have kept Virginia,Itat least too
is not
temporarily, out of the new Union.
much
to say that such a change in the vote would have
stopped the infant nation in its tracks.
Virginia
then the most powerful State in the Confederation.
Without her concurrence, Georgia and South Carolina
was
would have been separated from sister States to the
and most likely North Carolina would not have
North,
agreed
at
all.
30
�But the vote was to enter the Union.
won,
Madison and
Pendleton
and Henry and Mason lost, but the antagonists mutually left
to posterity a fascinating example of shrewd prophecy,
keen
insight, and learned debate on the towering questions of the role
of government in a free society.
2The. Richmand. News Leader,
June 25,
31
1963
�aI M
M
sa •••••
�Suggested Reading
Books
Charles H.
1910).
Chicago,
Ambler,
Sectio.
nalism..in.. irginia..
V,
from..1776.. to.,18.6.1
An older work with useful insights.
The map on the
vote of the Virginia Convention of 1788 may be found in this book.
Ambler was a student and disciple of Frederick Jackson Turner.
perhaps
overstresses
the " aristocratic"
political differences
Jonathan
vs. "
democratic"
basis
Ambler
of the
in Virginia.
Elliot,
ed.,
The. D.ebates .. f. the.,Sever.al..States
o
Co.nventions .., the..Adop.t. n..of. the- Feder.aL.,Conatitution. 5 vols.
o.n,.
io.
..
Washington, D.
C.,
1936).
There is no substitute for going to the
original source for
Freeman H.
information on the Virginia Convention of 1788.
Hart.
The. Valle_ of...
v_
Virainia. i.n. t.
ha, AmPrinan
Revolution ...
17.6.3.- 1.28.9. (
Chapel
Hill,
N.
1942) .
C.,
Remains
the
standard work on the Valley.
William T. Hutchinson and William M. E. Rachel, eds ,
The.. P.aper5
Q.f,.ames., Madis.on,. 14 vols. (
J
Chicago,
1962- ) .
Volumes ten and eleven
contain correspondence for this period.
Rhys
Hill,
N.
Isaac, Th . m
n fo
C.,
1982).
Isaac' s
ma ion o
Vi ginja
1740 - 1790 ( Chapel
last chapter, " Revolutionary Settlement:
Religion and the Forms of Community,"
religion was
Thomas Jefferson,
Peden (
Chapel
Michael
presents the view that only in
the Jeffersonian reform impulse successful.
Hill,
Kammen,
N.
Notes. an the State. of .Virginia.
ed ,
ed.
William
1955).
C.,
The. Ar.igins.,of.
h
Am
anstitution:... A
an
hocumentary.,Hist.
o.ry ( New York,
A very useful,
paperback
the Constitution;
volume
of proposed
1986).
plans for
correspondence of the key Founders;
and
and
a
cross
compact,
section
of
Federalist
Anti -Federalist viewpoints.
Jackson Turner Main,
Chapel
Hill,
N.
C.,
political Parties ..
befor.e.. the..Constitution
1973).
Main
stresses the " stability,
continuity,
consensus"
He argues
of Virginia during the Confederation period.
that the two " opposing factions" in Virginia were quite similar in
their
overall
outlook.
The
appendix
of
this book
has
a
capsule
biographical listing of the principal figures on both sides in the
1780s.
J. R. Pole, Rgu.a1 i y... Status,
1986).
Vi,rgi.nia ( Williamsburg, Va.,
the " Foundations
of America"
and . P.aw
in
homy
T
f
Gon' s
This recently published volume in
series has helpful
32
insights.
�1978).
Norman K. Risjord, Chesapeake ...
Palitics..,. 7.8.1 - 180Q ( New York,
1
Risjord analyzes the data somewhat differently from the
approach of Jackson Turner Main,
similar
but his conclusions are generally
Main' s.
Carolina.
Risjord
The book
to
studies
has much valuable
Maryland,
Virginia,
and North
its organization
information;
is
sometimes repetitious as the author moves back and forth among the
three
states.
Robert
A.
3
for this
Papers ..
af. Geor.ae.,Masan.._ L7.25 - 179.2.
.
The
Rutland,
ed ,
Hill,
N.
C.,
Wood,
The. Creatian..af. the .
American..Republic.,,.17.7.6. 1787
Wood traces the " revolutionary" change in
1969).
Chapel
vols. (
1970).
Volume
three
is valuable
period.
Gordon S.
Chapel
Hill,
N.
C.,
the political thinking of the generation which declared independence
and
then went on to construct
a governmental
structure unlike anything
they had experienced before.
Articles
Alan
V.
Briceland, "
Constitution,"
Letter.
October
LXI (
George
Virginia' s
Ratification
of
the
S.
U.
University of Virginia Institute of Government News
J.
1984).
Cleaveland, "
The
Church
of
Virginia
Established
The
Interdiocesan Bicentennial Committee of
1976),
Un.. F.r.om.. Independence ( Orange,
Va.,
pp. 19 -
Disestablished,"
Virginias,
Keith
Crim
and
Thomas
0.
Hall,
Jr., "
Religion
and
the
and
the
47.
Political
Virginia' s Statute for Establishing Religious Freedom,"
Process:
University of Virginia Institute of Government News. Lettet,
LX ( May,
1984).
A.
E.
Dick
Howard, "
The
Roots
of
American
Constitutional
Principles,"
Latter,
University of Virginia Institute of Government New.
LX ( January, 1984).
James
H.
Hutson, "
Country,
Court,
and
Constitution:
Willi.am.. and..Mar. Quarterly, 3rd
y
Ser.,
XXXVIII (
This is an absolutely
indispensable article to read first before any other book or article
Hutson reviews the several
on this period in Virginia history.
schools of historiography about " Revolutionary America' s two most
Antifederalism
conspicuous
In
and the Historians,"
1981),
337 - 368.
pp.
groups
this perceptive
historiography
World
War
of
losers- - the loyalists and the Antifederalists."
article he traces the course of Anti -Federalist
from its " Progressive" period ( 1900 - 1939) through post -
II " Consensus"
to prevail today.
history to the neo- Progressivism that seems
It is extremely helpful in trying to sort out who
were Federalists and Anti -Federalists and why they were so inclined.
Jackson
1787,"
Turner
Main, "
Sections
and Politics
William .. nd ..
a
Mary .Ouarter.ly,. 3rd Ser.,
33
in Virginia,
XII ( 1955),
pp.
178196 - 112.
�Norman R.
Risjord
and Gordon Den Boer, "
Political Parties in Virginia,
fiator,
v.
LX ( 1974),
Norman
Multivariant
1974),
pp.
R.
pp.
Risjord, "
Analysis,"
The
Evolution
of
7ausnal..of. Amer.icag
1782 - 1800," ,
961 - 984.
Virginians
and
the
Constitution:
A
Wia Liam. ana. Marg..Quax.ter.
lv.. 3rd Ser.,
XXXI
613 - 632.
Virginia Commission on the Bicentennial
of the United States
Constitution /University of Virginia Institute of Government, V.i.
rgini.
a
f .•
I,
nos.
1 - 4,
II,
no.
1
1-
f
4•-•
1 e
1985- 1987).
Booklet
The Virginia Commission on Constitutional Government,
V r.
aini. , I. uagal _..
a o.L.
Union ( Richmond,
Va.,
1963) .
When
An interesting
summary of the Virginia Convention of 1788 sympathetic to the Anti Federalist views of Patrick Henry and his allies.
34
�Questio•
ns
Vol .
8,
Answers
6
No.
December
The
Virginia
Philadelphia
the
and
Framing
1987
yAcH/
Convention
Constitution
the
of
RECOID
COP"
o•
0
O
e
Thad
by
Q.
How did the
A.
W.
Constitutional
A group of
44.
Tate
Convention come
more national- minded
nation-- a
Hamilton,
and
that
number
George
included
about?
leaders
James
of
Madison,
the new
Alexander
Washington
among others-- had by
the mid- 1780s developed a growing concern with what
they regarded
as
incurable weaknesses
in
the Articles
of Confederation and were determined to remedy them.
As Dr.
J.
Douglas Smith has explained very effectively
in question
6
Answers,
and
the October
earlier
1987
issue
meetings
of
the
Convention
immediate
that
path to
the
wrote
Questions
with more
both closely related to affairs
purposes,
provided
in
two
the
Federal
restricted
in Virginia,
Philadelphia
Constitution.
In
March 1785 a group of Maryland and Virginia
commissioners
problems
met
arising
at
Alexandria
over commerce
to
on
discuss mutual
the
Potomac
River.
Washington invited the group to move to more convenient
surroundings
of
what
at
then
Mt.
Vernon,
became
known
and
the
the
as
successful
Mt.
Vernon
outcome
Conference
prompted the calling of a more general
conference or
convention
would
on
commercial
representatives
in
Annapolis
only
of
three
the
September
at
including
of
and
At
them
that
and
the
would
appointed
had
Virginia,
seven
include
meet
states
were
at
time
a
quorum
not
Although we know very little of
all.
the
of
states
1786.
one
present,
proceedings
attend,
all
states,
delegates
represented
the
of
problems
Annapolis
Hamilton
and
those who did
decided to seek
meeting,
Madison,
a wider mandate by proposing to the states that
delegates meet at Philadelphia the following May to
consider
how
Government
to
make
adequate
"
the
to
constitution
the
exigencies
of
of
the
Federal
the Union. "
The Congress of the Confederation government ultimately
endorsed
the idea, but only after twelve state
legislatures
way was
thus
(
all
but
opened
Rhode
for
the
Island)
had
done
Constitutional
so.
The
Convention,
and the nationalists had the means they had sought to
strengthen
A Bi-
the
Monthly
Confederation.
Publication
of the
Department
of
Interpretive Education
+
�Q.
did those who advocated reform of the Articles
Confederation find the Confederation government
Why
the
What
deficient?
and
determine
about
their motives
objectives?
At
A.
one
government
to
can we
of
level
Articles
the
proponents
offered
a
of
a
stronger national
straightforward
Confederation:
of
set
its
of
objections
inability
to
conduct what they regarded as an effective foreign
to
and
policy
jurisdiction
interstate
over
its
treaties,
enforce
or
conclude
and
commerce,
its
lack
lack
of
of
power to raise revenue in that it could only request
that the states provide for the expenses of the
Confederation
These
government.
critics
also
condemned
specific
policies
and
especially laws that
interfered with the collection of private debts by such
means as the issuance of inflationary paper money that
actions
the
of
permitted
governments,
state
repayment
of
debt
at
less
than
original
value
or by legislation that closed the courts to suits by
fact,
in
argue,
debt
for
creditors
advocates
Articles
replacing
the
anything,
especially
they
regarded,
or
the problems
good
which
sought
to
the
example
Political
excesses
is
System
organize
his
that American government
of
James
of
future
the
or
it
were,
restraining what
as
wrongly,
A
in
paper
Constitution"
the
strengthening
concerned with
rightly
1786
a
of
Confederation
of
many state governments.
Madison' s " Vices of the
States, "
Many historians would
recovery.
that
the
United
" Father
of
thoughts
about
faced and which
concentrated heavily upon the states as the root of the
difficulties.
It
one
attempts
to move beyond
specific
and probe the frame of mind and the
incipient
far more
complex
interpretations.
opponents
states
of
of
the
sought
stronger
a
deplored
it
so,
is
an
these
motivation become
and susceptible to varying
Some historians have asserted that
Articles and of the power of the
had
government,
national
clear
that
genuine
some
proponents
Madison among them,
in
democracy"
of
in democracy that
Indeed,
achieved.
" excess
not
of
to reverse an advance
Revolution
the
questions
nationalists,
objections
ideology of
the
states.
democratization,
Even
as
opposed to the establishment of republican forms for a
society in which a relatively large number of free
males
white
Revolution
could
in
vote,
most
of
had
the
characterized
states.
the
Certainly the
nationalists with extremely few exceptions had no
intention of abandoning republican forms of government
that
included
a
representation.
to
the
national
strong
element
of
popular
Rather they were willing to extend it
level
where
it
did
not
really
exist
in
�a Confederation government that was at
diplomatic league of sovereign states.
Other
the
historians
have
Constitution were
in
argued
one
its
the
that
degree
or
base
a
advocates
ideology,
sometimes
idealized
abandoning an older political
labeled civic humanism,
which
of
another
a
limited
government carried on by public spirited leaders who
resisted any impulse to pursue their own material
interests and any effort of others to corrupt the
political
for
process
their
own
The
ends.
instead perceived as moving to a
the competition of such interests as an
feature of public affairs.
Rather than
of
virtue
are
inevitable
rely on the
they believed governments
leaders,
unselfish
framers
frank acceptance of
might be erected which permitted this inevitable play
of
interests but made it difficult for any one to
dominate.
to
few,
Probably
uncompromisingly
combine
to
if
elements
of
Undoubtedly many nationalists
competitive
greater
new
of
any,
the
framers
adhered
ideology, but rather tended
each in their political thought.
either
looked to such
individualism as
prosperity
government
and
could
likely to encourage
economic
growth,
especially if
encourage
a
genuinely
a
national
economy.
Those who
framed the new constitution clearly
intended to make fundamental
order that went far beyond a
the
structure
there
of
the
little
seems
changes in the political
few piecemeal reforms in
Of
government.
existing
doubt,
although
we
will
that
always
debate whether in accomplishing that end they fulfilled
or extensively altered
American
Q.
Who
the
the original
objectives
of
the
Revolution.
were
members
of
the
Philadelphia
Convention?
How could they best be characterized?
When
A.
all
the
delegates
to
the
Convention had
fifty- five,
representing
arrived,
they
states.
Rhode Island had voted against
numbered
Each
representatives.
Confederation,
their
had
delegations
respective
notable
state
one
as
state,
legislatures,
exceptions,
most
of
the
Congress
though
the
delegates,
The
varied.
in
even
vote,
of
size
the
of
chosen by the
with
included,
the
twelve
sending
prominent
a
few
leaders
of
the
In particular, Thomas Jefferson
Revolutionary era.
and John Adams,
both serving in diplomatic posts
abroad,
were
unable
to attend.
Among the more
important delegates were Elbridge Gerry and Rufus King
of
Massachusetts;
Alexander
especially
William
Hamilton
Roger
of
influential
Livingston
of
Sherman
New
in
New
York,
the
of
Connecticut;
who
was
Convention
Jersey;
not,
however,
itself;
Benjamin
Franklin,
�Robert
Morris,
Pennsylvania;
Dickinson
Pinckney and Charles
Carolina;
Edmund
Randolph
The
of
Pennsylvania'
unable
to
Wilson
South
Washington,
George
of
seight--
for
the
and
seven- man Virginia
largest
the
after
George
included
duration
Wythe,
of
the
who
was
Convention;
left early;
James McClurg,
and John
who
also
Williamsburg, who is buried in Bruton Parish
Blair
of
McClurg had replaced Patrick Henry who was
churchyard.
but
elected
of
Charles
Virginia.
second
remain
James
Cotesworth Pinckney of
other members
delegation-- the
and
Delaware;
of
Madison,
James
and
Morris,
Gouverneur
John
to
refused
Henry' s response was
he "
because
serve
typical
of
smelt
a
rat. "
a number of
relatively important leaders at the state level who did
not
the
share
alarm at
nationalists '
the
in
government
For
nation.
new
the
that
condition
reason
of
the
delegates by no means constituted a genuine cross
section of political opinion among the voters at large.
This was
a convention
the
to
need
of
The
altogether.
men who
the
strengthen
few who
essentially
even
Articles,
did
not
share
agreed on
replace
them
that purpose,
men like John Lansing and Robert Yates of
New York,
tended to drop out after a time and return home.
Attendance
fluctuated
to
committed
the
even among
nationalist
those who were
cause,
averaging
about
forty.
Efforts
to
characterize
the
delegates
beyond
their
Forrest McDonald
strong nationalist bent have varied.
has pointed out that most were lawyers,
thirty- one out
of
fifty- five,
the
fifteen
out
active
but
not
suggests
political
an
the
even
more
many
influential
and
others,
and
of
larger
than
proportion--
twenty--
delegates.
This
of
the
fact,
among
relatively high level of
experience
among
the
framers.
education
The
twentieth- century historian Charles Beard argued
were
a
wealthy
group
that of
interest,
with
a
creating a
predominant
fully
most
early
they
economic
strong government
that
would pay off at par value the depreciated securities
of the Revolutionary government in which they were
Detailed analyses of the
allegedly heavy investors.
framers,
while certainly establishing
reveal
affluence,
a
more
complicated
their relative
pattern
of
property holding that defies any such simplistic
analysis.
A more suggestive characterization offered by
Stanley Elkins and Eric McKittrick is that with some
notable
exceptions
like
the venerable
leaders,
Benjamin
Franklin
men who had begun
they
their careers during the Revolution rather than under
were
the
old
either
a
younger
colonial
in
the
group
of
governments
Continental
and
Army
or
who
the
often
served
Continental
�Congress.
Frustrated by what they regarded as
ineffectiveness
and
If
range
not
of
termed
Jefferson
No
doubt
almost
when at
The
experience
did
of
and
have
the
loyalties
strongly national.
demigods"
that
remarkable
agreed
with
group.
George
Mason
the Convention he wrote his
Hopes
of
all
the
Union
son,
center
in
Convention. "
How
more
they were a
would
the opening of
Expectations
were
" assembly
them,
all
the
Q.
the
altogether
their
Confederation,
the
of
Convention
the
historians
some
against
A.
the
have
Articles
of
Was
itself?
organize
argued,
it,
a "
essentially
as
conspiracy"
Confederation?
The charge of conspiracy derives especially from a
number of
circumstances
Convention
place
the
and
surrounding the calling of
led
that
of
events
and
to
Philadelphia
on
while
accidental,
the
larger
their
In
organization.
initial
course
Annapolis
stating
its
prime
from Mt.
scarcely
movers
were
the
first
Vernon
to
seems
guarded
Although
purposes.
the
no
about
one
said
so
many delegates well before Philadelphia had
clearly developed a more sweeping agenda than simply
openly,
Whereas
Articles.
the
revising
the
Annapolis
delegates
had been quick to adjourn after issuing a call for the
Philadelphia meeting when a quorum did not appear early
in
their
the
meeting,
Philadelphia
delegates
waited
patiently from the scheduled meeting date of May 14,
1787,
May 25
to
interim
the
a
preparing
Madison,
present
for
set
Plan,
Virginia
for
of
frankly
amendment
delegates
saw
its
as
a
the
"
total
rather
delegates
as
the
James
Alteration
the
the
in
since
author,
than
were
engaged
known
principal
System"
In
assemble.
were
propositions,
which
Federal
to
quorum
a
Virginia
in
the
recommendations
instructed
to
consider.
When
delegates
the
the
meeting
delegates,
arrivals,
Edmund
Convention
elected
and
George
assembled
on
Washington
appointed
a
rules
May 25,
as
the
the
president
committee.
of
The
reinforced by an additional nine late
got down to serious work on May 29 when
Randolph
the
introduced
Virginia
Plan.
The
following day Randolph also proposed and won acceptance
for
a
resolution
" that
a
national
Government
ought
to
be established consisting of a supreme Legislative,
Executive,
replaced,
equal
As Madison and others had
Judiciary. "
the Articles were thus to be completely
and
envisioned,
not
alacrity
amended.
to
The
conduct
Convention
its
business
agreed
in
with
secrecy--
and
it may surprise us that it actually succeeded in doing
so.
�Whether
the
organization
strictest
of
steps
the
sense
leading
to
Convention
the
calling and
amounted
in
the
to a conspiracy can be debated.
Certainly the key nationalist agenda remained largely
hidden
Convention
the
until
was
for
ready
that conspiracy or effective political
but
work,
was
strategy?
Despite the advance consultation among nationalists,
the
secrecy
at
Philadelphia,
repudiation
of
their
element
delegates '
agenda of
of
and
the
instructions,
the
the Convention was essentially to be effected
by political means.
Delegates knew they had to reach
agreement by debate and compromise and then to win
wider acceptance of their handiwork by an open process
of
ratification,
not by imposing their new plan of
government by coup d' etat.
Q.
What
did
The
A.
the Virginia
principal
(1)
included
Plan contain?
provisions of the Virginia Plan
bicameral national legislature, with
a
lower house chosen by popular vote and
lower
from
a
slate
nominees;
of
(
2)
the
the upper by the
apportionment
of
representation in both houses according to the
of
each state;
(3 )
retention by the new
government of all the powers already granted to the
Confederation government plus a very broad right to
population
legislate
were
"
in
all
cases
national
which
so;
(
the
4)
separate
the
right
legislature to veto any act of
legislature
decidedly
elected
in
do
to
incompetent"
that
executive
weak
the
contravened
revision
that
national
legislature;
had
an
the
state
(5)
Constitution;
a
vested in an indirectly
reinforced by a council of
power,
somewhat
president,
a
states
of
absolute
and
(6
veto
)
of
acts
provision
of
for
a
the
national
judiciary.
Although Madison' s plan certainly reduced the
power
promise
be.
the
of
a
The
states
national
undefined and potentially
one
government,
from
this
final
test
Madison
by
particular
brief
which
outline,
the
no
means
the
legislature.
of
departure
to
a
stronger
got
veto
of
when
for
the
the
was,
it
set
not
altogether
as
it
great
to
an
the national
Even
store.
is
set
against
can
see
he
came
however,
one
everything
state
representation
Yet
did
strong weapon of
Madison
Constitution,
of
proportional
executive,
on
it
powerful
legislation
state
of
veto
extensively,
government as
the
that
wanted,
losing in
legislation and
in both
Virginia
Plan
Convention,
and
houses
of
the
served
as
the
it pointed
point
the way
national government incorporating
and legislative branches,
judicial,
operating in some part by direct representation of the
people
with,
rather
rather
than
than
the
being
states
alone,
subservient
and
to,
sharing power
the states.
�Q.
How
did
the
Convention
debate
and
shape
the Virginia
Plan?
IIIA.
Once
the
Plan
Virginia
had
Convention quickly voted to go
Whole
discuss
to
Madison' s
been
the
introduced,
into Committee of
the
This
proposals.
parliamentary device meant that when a measure was
it
approved,
still
had
to
be
reconsidered
and
adopted
officially after the delegates reconvened as the formal
Convention.
While
debate
be
could
be
could
tried
rescinded
an
on
point
As
delegates
and
more
even
and,
out
might
in
committee,
and
ranging,
ideas
initially approved,
Of
have
turned
matters
sat
wide-
if
thought.
second
important
prevail.
the
freer
a
those
course,
second
chance
who
lost
to
the opportunity for
out,
reconsideration almost certainly saved
the Convention
from breaking apart at one critical juncture.
The
delegates
remained
in
Committee
of
the Whole
debating and discussing the Virginia Plan point by
point from May 30 until a committee report to the
Convention was approved on June 19 .
They then began a
second and equally thorough round of debate in
Convention that lasted from June 19
amended
set
Until
1
commanded
III
of
proposals
June
discussion
for
were
the
to July 26 when an
formal
approval.
centered
Those
agreement.
wide
controversial
13
gained
that
part
most
on
points
were
more
that
From
postponed.
roughly mid- June
to mid- July the
Convention passed
through
its
critical
when
to
those
face
most
The
opposition.
concerned
of
most
legislation.
Of
the
press
these,
number
of
large
smaller
lower
control
and
of
in
a
of
had
greater
staunch ally on
continued
delegates
from
of
Jersey,
moved
of
the
in
some
a
representation would be
New
houses
both
representation was
a
balked.
substitute
the
plan,
in both
legislature
executive,
and
state
although
government with wide
respects
than
Madison
himself
proposed.
Although
modified
the
Virginia
Committee
Plan
and
of
the
rejected
Whole
the
On
speaking for
representation of the states
choice
in
state
legislature,
such
Paterson
otherwise leaving the national
powers,
of
of
Pennsylvania,
of
whose
states,
upper
the
had
aroused
population
veto
position,
state
delegates,
the
on
the
issue
Wilson
the
providing equal
based
and
the
less
state
delegates
that
disagreements
As Madison and his
proportionately
June 15 William
small
the
Plan
electing the president,
legislature,
especially crucial.
this question,
James
to
Virginia
representation
the
of
period
the
significant
the mode of
proportional
houses
parts
accepted
New
Jersey
the
�the
Plan,
debate
continued
and
grew
more
heated
in
July.
By July 2 the Convention was deadlocked,
Benjamin Franklin on one celebrated occasion making an
unsuccessful
their
resolution
who
in
attempt
sessions
moved
the
equal
July 16
crisis
his
lower
of
house
a
delegates
Connecticut
but
to
open
delegate,
representation be
that
five
passed
the
impasse was broken by a
in
representatives
motion
the
the
have
an
On
house.
upper
four,
to
states
allowed
states
and
the
passed.
Called
the
The
proportional
elected
number
persuade
Sherman,
Roger
of
that
to
prayer.
with
the
Great
Constitution,
by
concession
bitter
disagreement
most
histories
of
this
step was more nearly a reluctant
populous
states,
seemed
trivial
although
In
Madison.
James
has
in
more
the
for
pill
Compromise
respects
some
compared
to
the
a
the
great
desire among an overwhelming majority of delegates for
a
new
and
Some
government.
central
stronger
have
seen
it as masking the emerging sectional differences
between a slaveholding South and a North moving toward
emancipation
them,
were
Many delegates,
slaves.
fearful
but
division,
sectional
state
of
indeed
of
the
there
even among a
interest,
outlook
as
this
history
as
separate
Madison among
potential
was
also
group as
a
for
substantial
nationalist
in
The thirteen states had a long
one.
and
colonies,
since
1776
most
had
put in place new state constitutions embodying local
concerns
The
and
states
fixing
had
legitimate
the principle of
become
interest
nationalist
could
Within
in
a
that
not
another
real
even
the
entirely
a
most
vested
and
ardent
overcome.
July 26,
on
week,
republicanism.
sense
the
Convention
approved what had now become a very much modified
Virginia Plan not only in the key areas of
the
representation,
legislation,
other
and
respects
council
of
and
the
for
Convention
of
as
of
a
the
the
veto
the
state
but
elimination
addition of
for
of
president
ratification
provision
states on a basis of
the
such
well,
procedure
constitution,
But
election
revision or
a
process,
as
abandonment
the
the
an amending
of
the
admission
of
equality with the original
had
in
of
accepted
the
outlines
give
Constitution
new
states.
of
a
new
constitution.
Q.
How
did
final
the
Convention
the
its
form?
The plan that the delegates had adopted on July 26
A.
still
took
the
form
government but of
resolutions.
Committee
of
The
not
of
a
systematic
a disjointed group of
Convention
Detail
(
two
New
plan
of
twenty- three
accordingly
chose
Englanders,
two
a
�Southerners,
adjourned
the
August
9
into
more
resolutions
appointed date
seven
the
a
five
to
Constitution
a
additional
retained
full
changes
September
8.
Committee
on
of
then
form
converted
Although
and
exact
before
the
the
its
document
them
of
and
acceptance
one
into
the
on
the
committee,
second
turn
By
number
continued debate
a
gave
Style,
had
then
to
committee
document.
finished
remained
Even
the
articles.
that
month
and
Pennsylvania)
of
allow
members
comprehensive
more
articles,
Wilson
James
and
until
final
not without making a few significant changes
polishing-of
their own--
before thirty- nine of the forty- two
delegates who were still in attendance
Constitution on September 17 .
A
significant
part
of
the
debate
signed
on
the
the
draft
prepared by the Committee of Detail centered on the
sectional
issues
slavery and the slave
heretofore skirted,
and
of
trade,
which
of differing
South,
views between North and
especially the states of
the Lower South,
about laws affecting American foreign
delegates
the
had
The
commerce.
southern delegates
export taxes on the products
navigation acts
that might
remained
they sent
fearful
of
overseas and of
restrict American
trade
to
American ships and thereby raise shipping rates by
giving northern vessels a monopoly of overseas cargoes.
Ultimately an elaborate scheme of compromises was
out.
worked
They included retention of a provision
that
the
slave
population
three- fifths ratio for
state' s representation
that
new
slaves
in
a
state
would
count
at
a
the purpose of calculating that
in the lower house of Congress,
could be
imported
through
the year
1808
the assumption being the slave trade would be outlawed
that
at
that
to
return fugitive
in
stated
be
time) ,
the
obligation
slaves
Constitution,
the
In
prohibited.
return
of
the United
to southern
and
that
States
states would be
export
Southerners
taxes
agreed
would
that
navigation acts might be passed by simple majority and
that
a
small
The
tax
since
concerned with
the
essentially
these
issues
of
extension
issue or
differences
to
levied
the Virginia
agreements,
slavery
be
to overestimate
however,
these
was
victory
southern,
opposed
might
on
slave
southern--
delegation was
lower
less
and Mason absolutely
trade.
slave
It is
the difficulty of
the opening up of
the
or
the
for most delegates
upset
imports.
did not wish the
any
achievement
easy,
reaching
of
sectional
a
new
At the same time many delegates betrayed
deep apprehension over the recognition of slavery in
Constitution.
the
document.
In every case the term slave or black
was avoided by circumlocutions that referred vaguely to
persons"
however.
in a
context
that
could
only mean
slaves,
�In both
Committee
many
their
final
form,
the
electoral
of
discussion
Detail
and
familiar details
granted
the
the
of
United
the
example,
the
the
preamble
States"
of
the
Committee
specific
exact
the
of
the
on
Style
Constitution were given
for
college
the work
of
the
legislature,
alteration
the
of
for
of
that
choice
rather
nature
of
to
a
of
the
and
president,
read
than
powers
of
"
We
each
the
People
individual
state.
Then at the last came efforts by two prominent
to make further changes,
one by Edmund
Randolph seeking to call a second convention to
Virginians
consider
amendments
that
the
another by George Mason to
rights
Neither
Elbridge
with
who
stayed
which
and
successful,
was
Gerry
to
the
the
and
propose
it
thus
yet
far
and
lacked.
two Virginians
Massachusetts,
of
end
might
incorporate a full bill of
Constitution,
the
in
states
the
refused
to
were,
three
sign
members
the
Constitution.
present,
Madison,
With McClurg and Wythe no longer
the Virginia signers included only Washington,
and
Thus,
the
text
Blair.
as
the
delegates
of
the
new
distributed
and
published
prepared
the
in
contest over ratification and a
between
Federalists
Convention
had
but
work,
its
yet
to
home
and
be
newspapers,
the
began.
Antifederalists
and
completed
Constitution was
return
to
great
searching debate
important chapter in the history of
the
to
Constitution began
unfold
The
another
the formation of
in
the
fight
for
ratification.
Q.
On
balance,
results
of
what
were
the work
Constitution?
Had
some
of
it
the
of
the
most
Convention
significant
in writing
a new
left any major problems
unresolved?
A.
Obviously the broadest consequence of the
Convention was that it actually succeeded in writing a
Constitution,
one
that
created
a
full- fledged
national
government where only a loose confederation of
had
legislature
regulation
money,
was
The
existed.
"
and
were
of
the
general
powers
the
states
national
impressive-- taxation,
commerce,
the
right
to
borrow
two open- ended powers of doing whatever
proper"
to carry out its more
and
the
If
dramatic,
promised
a
American
government.
debate.
of
and
welfare. "
Antifederalists
powers
particularly
interstate
necessary
specific
expanded
on
power
even
the
to
ratified,
provide
the
for
the
Constitution
revolutionary,
change
in
Its very boldness put the
defensive
in
the
ratification
�forms
Republican
in
existed
the
level
national
of
their
another
was
of
government,
but
states,
course,
extension
already
the
one
move,
striking
to
that
directly challenged the common political wisdom of the
day that republics worked only in very small
territories where people could have a very direct
relationship to government, whereas Federalists were
prepared to argue
that republics would,
in tact,
work
best
over extended
territories where
it would be more
difficult for any single interest to dominate
government.
As
powerful
Constitution,
as
the
new
central
especially as
government
a consequence
of
the
was,
the Great
Compromise,
left a strong role for the states by
dividing sovereignty between the two levels of
This
government.
federal
feature
distinguishing
system has
remained
American
the
of
a
although
polity,
the balance between state and national authority has
shifted
and
provision
often
for
been
of
new
tension.
of
source
a
admission
states
on
The
a basis
of
complete equality also had important implications for
the
future.
It
did
not
preclude
American
imperial
ambitions in the sense of extending territorial
but it did effectively bar the establishment of
dependent
colonies
By virtue of
as
the
the
of
statement
government,
nor
the
the Constitution
Constitution
It was not
principles
took
simply a
broad
of
the
was
land, "
law.
substantive
Britain,
North American mainland.
the
of
theoretical
Great
the
the clause defining
law
" supreme
force
on
limits,
of
Constitution,
like
that
of
an unwritten body of custom and
precedent.
The
Constitution,
of
already
not
unresolved
noted
Indeed
instrument
yet
the
caused
could
not
solve
the
and
of
We
questions.
though
slavery,
question could have been
have
it
is
settled
in
Constitution was ultimately the
emancipation
in
the
Thirteenth
Amendment,
sanction it provided slavery for many years
much
Despite
rights
that
of
problems
acceptance
its
clear how
1787 .
course,
and its framers did not escape leaving some
everything,
legacy
of
subsequent
arguments
was
not
in
turmoil
the
necessary,
and
grief
Convention
its
for
that
a
omission was
Americans.
bill
a
of
serious
given the tradition already being established
by a number of state constitutions such as that of
Virginia.
Fortunately this problem was quickly
remedied by the approval of the first ten amendments as
matter,
early
about
as
the
judiciary
1791.
The
powers
and
the
and
Constitution
was
also
responsibilities
executive
than
of
of
the
much
both
vaguer
the
legislature.
�It
required
subsequent
practice to define
It
can
be
also
legislation
and
political
these powers more adequately.
of
said,
that
course,
in
attempting
to establish the principle of federalism by a division
of
sovereignty between the states and the central
government
the
Constitution
nonetheless
failed
to
provide a means of defining the line of division
precisely.
Yet it is not clear that any such
definition
more
could
On
places.
the
conflicts
ever have worked
and
failures
the
and
than
all
well
the
1861.
of
this
itself
achieved
in
the
times
have
single
in
accommodation
responsible
Convention
for
might
suffered
Constitution
one
it
contrary,
and
produced
spectacular
The
practical
question
Great
that
the
Compromise may
be the best example of the kind of flexibility and
political skill on which maintaining a workable federal
balance
task
at
rests.
In
writing
of
the
and
way,
What
process
brief
list
Constitution
A.
One
of
itself
the
on
no matter
several
Collier,
recent
work.
the
formation of
how
familiar
accounts
Christopher
Decision
Convention
Constitutional
1787
of
of
( New
Among
Clinton
accounts,
( New
Miracle
Convention
Forrest
choices.
Intellectual
of
the
the
Constitution
in
the
Convention.
of
Hill,
C. ,
N.
The
Ordo
Grand
Drinker
1967 ) ,
the
are
good
Seclorum:
Constitution
formation of
Creation
1787 :
The Story of
Novus
is
1986) ,
York
Catherine
York,
James
The
The
(
Lawrence,
opens up in a very clear manner the
ideas and ideology that influenced the
background of
operation
and
scholarship.
Rossiter,
and
(New
McDonald,
Origins
1985) ,
1966) ,
Philadelphia:
at
Constitutional
Kans. ,
York,
it might
the
Collier
readability and
older
the
the
Philadelphia:
in
an effective blend of
Convention
whole
delegates
recommend?
Convention,
Philadelphia
Bowen,
the
the
should perhaps begin by rereading
Of
Lincoln
you
in
how effectively the
sometimes
readings
would
Constitution
seem.
can
indeed
Constitution,
Federal
Philadelphia demonstrated
political
Q.
that
the
American
1969) ,
will
and
traces
Gordon
their
The
Wood,
1776- 1787
Republic,
require
S.
careful
( Chapel
but
reading,
For an up- to- date,
well- organized guide to further reading and to the
it
is
major
fundamental
of
interpretations
formation
of
Bicentennial
the
of
scholars
Constitution,
Bookshelf:
Constitutional
Friends
importance.
Era
have
Historians
( Philadelphia,
Independence
National
presented
Jack
see
P.
Analyze
1986) ,
of
the
Greene,
A
the
issued by the
Historical
Park.
1
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 8, 1987
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/0b1b0e15c91a93edccecd84773bbe37c.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=rKNqXk7xG7obJt0kYSAqYBmkYHjqZzkaW78YAfsNGqyaslSJId-FbrbU10xrXxOt2YF3oNOsqlv39ySMa5pzcJjqQY6fvBG01kIu4pHn%7EKr2iYaFl4aNe5FMiyhqhKtvFjJXCZ1YiXbrfcPXMdKdytk8ZQihPj3W9sZqd4oL4cH9D9mngGqKIofFEU7SLz30QmwHT4tputtNVGK3WBdFwrAq-7Y9QzQpAjN-qJVMb2lg00wFMZz%7EaVUiSQVFvdupLXhCT527ZhFtnwsc2b41zS74U-jp40KnhTLJYgbaUXnIKMdEaAtAgQG3HuszJuA6MaqJh0aY4v8dOEjA4eyY2A__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
2be12955df0b4910bd298afd9cc0ed27
PDF Text
Text
Answers
Questions
Vol.
7,
No.
February 1986
1
In this issue of Questions and Answers we want to
share with you questions we received from the Historic Area
Stores
about eighteenth- century
Baumgarten,
Linda
clothing.
Curator of Textiles answered questions 1,
2, '
3
I
Harold Gill Assistant to the Director of Craft
question 4 and John Moon, Director of Music part B
and 5 - a,
Shops,
of
1.
quest -on
5.
Did Storekeepers
wear Waistcoats?
Eighteenth century men of all
some which had
sleeves
When part of a suit,
and
some
sleeveless.
the waistcoat was worn over the
shirt and under the coat,
with just the
fronts
Some working men wore their waistcoat as a
visible.
jacket,
classes wore waistcoats,
attached,
without
the
Only in hot weather, during
coat.
vigorous activity, and in very informal situations
would
coat,
2.
in his
shirtsleeves.
as
would
waistcoat ( and
probably
well)
a
when meeting
a
customers.
Was there such an article of clothing for women in the
Eighteenth Century;
sleeved- bodice,
an
similar
over -garment - -such
to
the
sleeved
as
length
sleeves.
They fitted closely to
the body over the white shift,
and were worn with an
These jackets show up in several
including a painting of
print and painting sources,
slave women working in Virginia fields around 1800.
outer
petticoat.
Textile staff members in the Crafts Department have
made several reproduction jackets of this type, one of
which can be seen on exhibit at the Carter' s Grove
Reception
3.
Center.
Why was a ladies head covered at all times?
Religion?
Style?
Custom?
Fiona Clark,
author
of the book
entitled Hats,
suggests that the custom for married women wearing
caps was an evolution derived from the teaching of the
church
in
conceal
century,
the
Middle
their hair
Ages
that
in public.
it had become custom,
married women
CLOTHING:
a
waistcoat?
Many working women wore jackets that laced ( or less
frequently buttoned) up the front and which had
below -elbow
CENTURY
Most
wear
a man appear
storekeepers
EIGHTN
should
By the eighteenth
and caps were worn as
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive 'Education
WAISTCO HATS -
KILTS
�indications of the married state and ' domestic
intimacy."
When dressed formally women frequently
dressed their hair with ribbons or pearls, and omitted
their
caps.
The wearing of caps by interpreters
serves both to show the widespread wearing of head
coverings during the eighteenth century, but also to
hide modern hair styles which might distract from the
costume.
4.
Were trues /tammes or balmorals worn by a storekeeper?
I have seen no evidence that any of the items above
were worn by storekeepers in Williamsburg.
5 a. Were there Kilts worn in Eighteenth- Century
Williamsburg?
I have not found conclusive evidence for men wearing
Scottish -style clothing here in Williamsburg, though
some may have.
Many imported Scottish textiles were
being worn here,
often made
of
however.
a woolen
Stockings and suits
textile called " plaid,"
this term indicated the type of wool fabric,
than
the
pattern.
were
but
rather
Sometimes " plaid" was checked or
patterned, but frequently it was white.
5
b.
In 1745 after the Battle of Culloden,
Jacobite Rebellion,
i. e.,
clan
bag -pipes,
tartans.
the second
things Highland were outlawed
kilts,
Highland pistols and wearing
This was an attempt to break up the
clans.
By 1760 these items were allowed to appear again but
there was no kilt maker in Williamsburg, which is a
specialized
craft.
As head of the Murray clan,
own piper,
Governor Dunmore had his
he was kilted but this was an exception.
The following Highland regiments the 42rd, 54th, 82nd,
71st and 76th arrived here between 1770 and 1780 and
at the
seige of Yorktown all were kilted.
Upon
their
discharge kilts became private property.
Some of the kilts may have been sold in Williamsburg
but there is still no evidence that they may have been
worn
here.
�Answers
Questions
Vol.
7,
No.
April 1986
2
In this issue of Questions and Answers we have
collected
will be
1.
a
number
of
miscellaneous
questions.
We hope they
of interest to all of you.
Was bathing considered unhealthy?
Naturally,
individual
to
opinion varied widely from one
the
William Byrd II
next.
in his History
of the Dividing Line mentioned several occasions on
which he was relieved to be able to bathe after
travel in
days'
the
wilderness.
George Wythe
several
took
cold
showers every morning for both health and hygienic
purposes.
Advertisements
for soaps
and other bathing
equipment show that there was something of a market for
these
While
items.
hygiene - wash
appear
equipment
basins
and
associated
stands,
in inventories before
the
with
personal
for examples -- rarely
1760s ( and then only
in estates of the very well- to -do),
buckets
and
other
multi purpose items could have been used at bath time.
Vermin
in beds
and heads were
frequently written about,
indicating that the personal cleanliness was not a high
priority, and many people did not own enough clothing
to
change
often.
It
is
important to understand that
the eighteenth century did not share our modern concern
with
2.
cleanliness.
What did colonials use
to brush
their teeth?
The toothbrush has changed very little since its
invention by the Chinese in the fifteenth century.
Stores and shops in eighteenth- century Williamsburg
sold both
toothbrushes
and
dentifrice
powders.
Sassafras twigs may have been used occasionally too.
3.
Did women wear
lipstick in the eighteenth century?
Eighteenth- century English cookbooks include
recipes for lip balms made of various fats such as
Carmine or
spermaceti, and butter, but no dyes.
ground plaster of Paris mixed with red lead and other
lard,
coloring agents is said to have been used by some
fashionable
London
ladies.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�4.
Were there lamplighters in eighteenth -century
Williamsburg?
There were no
lamplighters because there were no
street lamps here in the eighteenth century.
5.
Were most homes in Williamsburg self- sufficient?
No.
See Barney Barnes' s article, "
The Powell- Waller Program,"
Economy:
Interpreter, July 1985.
6.
Urban
in The
Domestic
Did Peyton Randolph own property across England street
or north of the
two
John Randolph
Street
lots
where
his
house
sits?
owned a lot across North England
from the present Randolph House,
as
well
as
one
or more lots north of it and other property in and near
He sold the lot west of England Street,
Williamsburg.
and later in his will Peyton inherited the three or
more lots in block 28 where the Peyton Randolph House
stands.
7.
What did the colonial Virginian eat for breakfast?
In affluent households,
breakfast
consisted of hot
breads and cold meats ( Virginia ham and roast from
dinner the day before,
for
example)
or
a
hashed
dish.
Fruit and eggs were rarities.
lower
classes,
cornbread,
Among the middle and
hominy, or whatever was
available was welcome at breakfast as at any other
Milk,
meal.
small
beer,
and
cider
were
typical
breakfast beverages for all classes in the eighteenth
The well -to -do had the
century.
coffee,
8.
and
Did people
In
as
an
added options of tea,
chocolate.
eat
ancient
coffee
beans?
times,
some may have eaten coffee beans
the beverage came into general
experiment,
but
use in Europe during the seventeenth century.
English merchant engaged in trade with Turkey
An
introduced coffee to England in 1652.
9.
When did forks appear commonly on tables in colonial
Virginia?
In
general,
it is correct that some of the
wealthiest Virginians had forks very early in the
eighteenth century and that certainly by the 1750s even
quite modest
households
had
2
forks.
Lois
Carr
and
J
�Lorena Walsh
had
worked with
inventories
counties along the Chesapeake
and
Consumer
Behavior
in
the
paper they presented at the
conference
in
September
from various
for " Changing Life Styles
Colonial
Chesapeake,"
Institute' s
1985.
Carr
a
social history
and
Walsh
compared
rural and urban York County inventories for various
consumer
goods,
No York County
including table forks.
inventory from the seventeenth century mentions forks.
By 1732 in urban York County more than half of the
estates
worth
over
b95
included
forks.
Later
in
the
century forks became more common in both rural and
urban
areas
at
all
wealth
levels. (
The
Library has a copy of the conference
10.
Foundation
papers.)
Did they use a form of shorthand in the colonial
period?
William
Yes.
Byrd
II wrote
his
diaries
in
shorthand adapted from the system developed by William
a late seventeenth -century English stenographer.
Mason,
Mason' s textbook was
published
in
several
revisions
until
Byrd,
editions
Roger
presidents
Thomas
0
and
Williams,
of
Harvard
Jefferson
For more
1672
John Winthrop,
College
recommended
information
Besides
and several early
employed
its
and went through
1707.
shorthand,
and
use.
and an illustration of Byrd' s
see the introduction to The Secret Diary of
William Byrd of Westover, edited by Wright and Tinling.
shorthand,
11.
Is
there
a
difference
between
an
indenture
contract
and
an apprenticeship indenture?
Technically,
both are the same legal
form.
The
contents of apprenticeship indentures distinguish them
from other contracts
master
and
in the obligations on both sides
apprentice)
are
spelled
Apprentices
out.
usually had legal protections outlined in their
contracts,
whereas
indentured
servants
had
none. (
An
example of a typical apprenticeship indenture appears
in The Interpreter,
July 1981.)
12.
Did eighteenth- century families use the term governess?
When did
this
term
come
into use?
What
was
the
role
of
a governess in the eighteenth century?
The term was used in the eighteenth century;
it
appears in such works as the Spectator
for 1712 and in
Smollett' s 1771 novel Humphrey Clinker.
According to
the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest use of the
term in the sense of a female teacher or instructress
was
the
1712
Spectator.
A newspaper
3
advertisement
in
�1775
reads, "
A WOMAN who would act as
Virginia
any genteel family . " (
Purdie,
13
October
1775).
a GOVERNESS
Gazette,
to
ed.
Philip Vickers Fithian
refers to two governesses employed in homes near Nomini
Hall.
Duties of governesses probably varied greatly from
For example, it is not certain that
family to family.
in the eighteenth century governesses necessarily were
in private households.
Generally, a governess
employed
taught reading and other basic skills to females and
Sewing, etiquette, French, drawing,
very young boys.
and other
accomplishments were mainly taught to
girls.
4
the
�Answers
Questions &
Vol.
June
3
No.
7,
In this
issue of Questions and Answers
1986
we
asked
Conny Graft, programs manager, to give us an update on the
Junior
Interpreter
The objective of this group is
Forum.
to provide us with information
about eighteenth- century
We have included a few questions,
children.
bibliography,
a
and a list of our Junior Interpreter
programs.
An
Update on
the
Junior Forum
In May 1985, Dennis O' Toole asked me to chair a
forum for the purpose of coordinating and strengthening
all interpretive programs that involve junior
The forum members
interpreters.
who
represents "
Once
Upon
a
included Chris
Dylan
Town,"
Barton,
Pritchett
who
supervises junior interpreters in African -American
Dorothy Poucher who represented the Fife and
programs,
Drum Corps
time
as well as dance
instructor
Schone,
in
D. I. E.,
and music students, Anne
Marilyn Wetton who at the
and Mary Ellen
supervised the young needleworkers,
Stebbins who was developing a program for junior
interpreters
in
the
Crafts
We
department.
called
which stood for the Junior
Forum and we met for several months,
J. I. F.,"
ourselves "
Interpreters
sharing
information about each others' programs and discussing
ways in which we could coordinate and thereby strengthen
some
of
our
particularly in the areas of research
In January 1986, we presented Dennis
work,
and training.
O' Toole
and
the
Directors
of
HAPO
with
a
The
report.
following is a summary of some of our ideas and the status
of
our
recommendations.
RESEARCH
All of us agreed that we were sorely lacking in
research on all aspects
of children' s lives in eighteenth The few sources we knew of dealt
century Williamsburg.
with the children of the gentry class.
We
also
needed
to
know more about the daily lives of children of all
classes.
this
We
subject
recommended
be
that
published.
We
a
Question &
also
Answer
submitted
the Research department for a research
a list of questions we had developed.
a
sheet
on
request to
report that
Our request
covered
is now
being incorporated into a long list of other research .
request that Cary Carson is compiling into a ten year plan
for
his
department.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�Anne
Meanwhile,
resident
coordinator
Schone
on
the
has
been
subject
and
appointed
has
the
HAPO
developed
a
slide lecture on " Growing Up in Eighteenth- Century
Williamsburg" with assistance from historian Kevin Kelly.
Anne is also developing an annotated bibliography and
training materials on the subject with the assistance of
historical
to
all
interpreter Ruth
members
wonderful
of
the
collection
Rabalais which will be helpful
We have
forum.
of rare
discovered
a
eighteenth- century children' s
Thanks to
books at AARFAC and in our research library.
the work of intern Amy Killpatrick in the Museum Studies
Graduate
Program
and
John
Ingram,
Curator,
Library Special
Collection in the Foundation Library, we now have an
annotated bibliography of those books and will soon be
receiving a collection of xeroxed passages from several
books
to
share
with
our
junior
One
interpreters.
book
called " Goody Two Shoes" which we know was sold in
Williamsburg has been copied by John Ingram and with the
assistance of Dale Dippre in the Printing Shop and Mark
Howell in the Bindery, the book will be reproduced and
incorporated in our training and interpretive programs.
TRAINING
John
Caramia
and Anne
Schone
developed
an
outline
for a division wide training program for all junior
interpreters
in HAPO that covers
basic
information on
interpretation, the visitor, Virginia history, the
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, hospitality and courtesy
and Anne Schone' s materials on " Growing Up in Eighteenth
John
Century Williamsburg."
and
Anne
and
Valerie
Coons
are now implementing this training program for all junior
interpreters.
RECOGNITION
We came up with several actions we could take to
strengthen
their
the
recommendations
see
if
recognition
contributions
the
was
to
junior
our
that
interpreters
interpreters
programs.
we
work
could
receive
One
the
with
receive
of
the
school
for
major
system
school credit
to
for
their work.
Dorothy Poucher is now working with a staff
member of the James City County Public School System and
she reports that it looks very promising.
FUTURE
PROGRAM
We
DEVELOPMENT
proposed
that
sites
identified
in
the
ten
year
plan as having emphasis on family life incorporate junior
interpreters
into
their
interpretive
plans.
Sites
that
emphasize cultural life such as the Wren building and
George Wythe
House
should
also
include
2
junior
interpreters
�when special programs are being developed.
FUTURE
COORDINATION
AND
EXCHANGES
We proposed that
quarterly basis
the
forum continue
to
meet
on
a
for the purpose of exchanging research,
sharing new ideas and keeping each other up -to -date on new
training and program developments.
Since
the
forum' s
creation,
several
new
interpretive programs that incorporate young people have
been developed
members
of
and
J. I. F.
their " creators"
have become
new
Allison McCaig and Elaine Shirley in
the Coach and Livestock program of the Crafts department
17 every morning this
will have young people ages 12 summer from 8: 30 11: 00 a. m. helping them take care of
As with the " Once Upon a Town" program, the
the animals.
junior interpreters were
recruited
from the 4 - H Club.
Mary Wiseman is working with some of our youngest
interpreters who represent the Geddy children in her
Mary Wiseman and Alex
According to the Ladies" program.
Clark are also working with five " Young Gentlemen
Scholars" who will portray students at the College of
William and Mary in several experimental programs this
Bill Weldon in the Crafts department has been
summer.
assigned by Earl Soles to continue the work of Mary Ellen
Stebbins in establishing a junior interpreter program in
the
Crafts
department.
I am particularly excited about the possibilities
that these junior interpreters provide and the wonderful
things that can happen when such a program becomes
Not only do the programs provide an exciting
successful.
activity for young people in the community,
but
it
also
provides our young visitors and their parents with a
powerful image of family life in eighteenth- century
Williamsburg.
learn more
junior
feel
at
Q.
If you would like to
please
interpreter programs,
extension
free
about
to
our
call
me
2103.
What kinds of education were available to children
Eighteenth- century Virginia:
A.
A
small
families
number
of
attended
children
from
a
school, (
formal
colony or in England),
Mary,
or
the
the
College
wealthiest
either
of
in
the
William
and
studied at home under private tutors.
Otherwise,
parents
taught
skills
3
to
their
children,
in
�and
formal
apprenticeships
began when
the
child
to
Increasingly in the
eighteenth century men signed their names -- evidence
By the Revolution about 70 to 90
of basic literacy.
be
apprenticed was
percent
of
males
about
had
14.
that
the
skill;
literate women was smaller.
Others
gone through formal apprenticeships
percentage
of
may not have
but
learned
somewhere along the line a little reading and, if
nothing else, how to write their names and perhaps a
very few words phonetically.
Many wills - even of
middling" parents -- include a proviso that a child
be educated, and guardian accounts show payments
made
Q.
for
schooling paid
year.
Do we know how old these children were when they started
going to school?
How were they taught? What about
sciences
A.
by the
and
mathematics?
Fifthian' s diary,
between
the
what
Carter
he
reveals a considerable difference
taught
the children at various
received more instruction
daughters
ages;
in
homemaking skills from the women of the household
than literary skills from the tutor.
At the college of William and Mary,
all
male,
their
of
course)
mid - teens.
entered the
At this
stage
the students
Grammar
School
in
they were expected
to know basic Latin and be ready for higher
mathematics.
They learned by rote,
books.
It
was
not
by memorization,
unusual
for
a
and by copy
seven-
or
If
eight the
year old to begin the study of Latin.
eighteenth- century boy student were attending a
formal
school,
his
composition
was
done
in
Latin
as
well.
Among the
subjects
philosophy,
students
which included both physical and natural
The
sciences.
taught at the College was natural
to
mathematics
solve
taught
problems
in
there
enabled
astronomical
Among the natural
navigation and land surveying.
sciences,
the study of what we call biology- especially botany - was important for students, most
of whose
lives
were
spent closer
to
the
natural
world than in our day.
Q.
What toys and games and
activities did children
A.
From eighteenth- century prints and paintings it is
obvious
that
children
other leisure
engage in?
cherished
4
their
time
special
toys
�especially dolls for the girls) and pets; as
the Dering portrait of George Booth shows
a boy with his dog and a gun, the painting of the
examples,
Grymes
boys
includes
Bridge' s
portrait
cardinal
as
a
a
favorite bow and
Page
I"
Prints
from
the
pet.
arrow,
highlights
of " Mann
and
a
end of the
rhymes
Books of
century show children playing.
all types of toys ( both educational and
recreational)
both
Q.
in
were being made,
England
and
in
and
advertised,
and
sold
Virginia.
Did slave children actually play with white
children?
A.
It varied a lot with individual
Blair in a letter to her sister
let Betsy Braxton,
spend
niece,
time
her eightwith
slave
families.
notes that
or
Anne
she
nine -year
children
of
had
old
the
household and that Betsy had picked up some of the
black children' s words.
This certainly indicates
some amount of playing together by black and white
children within
the
same
household.
uncommon
for a black girl
years
age
of
to
be
of,
appointed
It
ten
say,
was
or
not
twelve
nursemaid to
white
children only a few years younger than herself.
Q.
Can we define or explain what we mean by childhood,
or children in the eighteenth century?
A.
For untold generations, childhood was not a distinct
period in the human life cycle.
As soon as a child
moved beyond infancy,
The
child' s
which he
or
life
he became a miniature adult.
reflected
she was
the
born.
life
Children
of
the
were
adults
set
to
doing the most routine tasks that any planting
Tedious chores were assigned
family needed done.
even very young children.
Depending on his
the
strength,
five-
fetched
water,
course,
this
economic
Q.
or
or
did
seven -year -old
other
again depends
simple
on the
carried
tasks;
social
but,
to
work
to
wood,
of
and
status of the particular family.
Did a child growing up in eighteenth- century
Williamsburg have more advantages than a child
growing up on a Plantation?
A.
A child in Williamsburg had very different
surroundings
farmstead.
than
In
Betsy Braxton
Blair
at
different
the
a
child
who
town
there
were
came to
John
more
spend the
Blair
situation
lives
House,
an
isolated
children.
When
summer with Anne
she
than at home
5
on
on
was
her
in
a
parents'
�She went along when Anne visited;
plantation.
attended music and dancing lessons;
she
she
played
with
young friends in the back yard; she ate green apples
and got sick; they made doll clothes for Betsy' s
doll;
she
did
needlework.
living in the household,
with
them.
These are
There
were
other
children
and occasionally she fought
just very typical things that
in many ways are not a whole lot different from
children' s
These
activities today.
questions
represent
a
sampling
of
questions
the
Junior
Interpreter Forum will be exploring in the months to come.
In
some
instances we
similarities
and
can make
differences
assumptions
as
we
look
about
at
the
the
experiences
of the eighteenth- century and twentieth- century child.
Certainly,
the colonial child lived in a very non - technical
world without plumbing, electricity, and everything having
to do with modern communications.
The majority did not go
to school, whereas the twentieth- century child' s school day
is formally structured, and he or she is the sole focus of
In the eighteenth century children -- especially
attention.
in farming families - - id not have the kind of freedom from
d
chores
that modern urban and
suburban children have today;
their labor was required as a contribution to the family' s
economic well -being.
At
this
time
it is
not possible to
draw more
conclusions,
but it is hoped that interpreters will be encouraged by the
research efforts to keep informed as we learn more about
this very important subject.
Here
is
a
list of
some
of
the
most
important
works
about
childhood:
Philip Vickers Fithian,
Vickers
Fithian,
Journal and Letters of Philip
1773 - 1774:
A
Plantation
Tutor
of
the
Old
Dominion.
Philippe
Robert
H.
Aries,
The
Bremner,
Centuries
Children
of
and
Childhood.
Youth
in
America:
A
Documentary History.
Karin
Calvert, " Children in American FAmily Portraiture,
1670 - 1810,"
William and Mary Quarterly, third series, vol.
39 (
Jane
1982),
pp.
Carson,
87 - 113.
Colonial Virginians at Play.
Philip Greven,
The
Protestant
Temperament.
6
�Ray Hiner and Joseph M.
N.
Children
America:
Joseph
Jan
Kett,
The
Adolescence
of
Passage:
of
Happiness:
in
America.
Family and Values in
Virginia.
Reproduction,
B.
Perspective.
Rites
Alan Macfarlane,
Darrett
Growing Up in
eds.,
Hawes,
Historical
Pursuit
The
Lewis,
Jefferson' s
in
Marriage
and Love
Modes
in England:
of
1300 - 1840.
and Anita
H.
Rutman, "
Now -Wives
and Sons - in- Law ":
in
Parental Death in a Seventeenth - Century Virginia County,:
Tate
and
Ammerman,
eds.
The
Chesapeake
in
the
Seventeenth
Century.
Daniel
Blake
Smith,
Lawrence Stone,
Inside
The Family,
the
Great
House.
Sex and Marriage in England,
1500 - 1800.
Lorena
S.
Walsh, "
Chesapeake,
Southern
Social
in
Relations:
Till
eds.,
The Experiences
1750- 1775,"
Death
Us
and Status of Women
Fraser
et
Women,
Do
al.,
Family,
and
in Tate
Part,"
The
eds.,
in the
Web
of
Education.
and Ammerman,
The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century.
unpublished
Shomer Zwelling, " Robert Carter of Nomini Hall,"
research paper, CWF Library, and forthcoming, American
Quarterly, fall, 1986.
History of Childhood Quarterly.
Journal of the History of the Family.
The following is a list of our junior interpreter programs
and the names of supervisors you may contact for more
specific
information.
Phyllis
Needleworkers
Putnam,
X2033
Crafts)
Juvenile
Black
Once
Performers
for
Dylan
Upon
a
Pritchett,
X2475
CCP)
Programs (
Town
Chris
7
Barton,
X2104 (
HI)
�Student Chamber Music
Student
Dance
Program
John
Program
Barrows,
Dorothy
X2520 (
CCP)
Poucher,
X2675
Moon
J
Todd
CCP)
Fife
and
Drum
CorEs
John
C.
Johnson,
4-H
Colonial
Livestock
Program
and
X2677/ 2105 (
CCP)
Allison McCaig and Elaine
Shirley, X2491/ 2392
Crafts)
Young Gentlemen Scholars
Mary Wiseman,
X2839 (
CCP)
3
8
�Answers
Questions
Vol.
7,
August
4
No.
1986
This issue of Questions & Answers responds to recent
We hope they will
questions from Historical Interpreters.
be of interest to other HAPO interpreters.
1.
Where did George Wythe stay in 1781 while George
Washington was using the Wythe House as his
Did Mr. Wythe and Mrs. Randolph
live in their houses at this time?
headquarters?
continue
We
to
have no
precise
evidence
but it is likely that both Mr.
Randolph
stayed
about this
subject,
Wythe and Mrs.
in their homes while
the
Revolutionary generals made their headquarters
Note that both these property owners were
and lived in large houses in the heart of
there.
wn
and
convenient .to
each
Washington
other.
Rochambeau needed only a place to sleep,
and
dispatch
On
officers.
was
and
messages,
the
sufficient
move,
for
meet
after
their
with
all,
purposes,
and
receive
their
a tent or
so it is
two
logical to think only part of a large Williamsburg
residence
fulfilled their needs
as
headquarters.
Washington was in Williamsburg from September 15
until
he
left
for Yorktown on
September
28.
His
correspondence during that period is often date
lined " Head Quarters, Williamsburg," but he does
not specifically mention either George Wythe or
Thomas Jefferson had invited
the Wythe House.
Wythe to the relative safety of Monticello,
invitation Wythe
had had
to
refuse
because
an
of
His reply to Jefferson
family obligations.
mentions the necessity of his " presence at
the family property in Elizabeth
Chesterville,"
City County ( now Hampton).
We have a
1781,
July 11,
at
little more
St.
Randolph.
the
2.
Is
George Tucker,
hinted
that
writing his wife on
Mrs.
Randolph
the Peyton Randolph House while
headquarters.
her
information about Mrs.
honour
of
remained
it was
used
as
Tucker wrote that Aunt Betty had
Count Rochambault [
sic]
to
lodge
at
House."
it
true
Southeast
Tt
iq
that
George
Chamber
wall
of
Washington
the
Wythe
dnrnmented'
occupied
the
House?
that +
ha
Wvthe
Hance
served
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�as
George Washington' s
From this
Yorktown.
the
chambers.
could view
his
can
However,
both
chamber
headquarters
we
has
the
no
record
church
been
assume
that
steeple
located
before
that he
siege of
slept in one
George
and
in his
the
of
Washington
Palace Green
correspondence
from
or
elsewhere.
3.
Why was the Capitol building not used as
headquarters?
Once the
capital moved
in
it
1780,
seems the Capitol building would have been used
for some important function during the Revolution.
Did
it ever
serve as a hospital
after
the Palace
hivrner7?
The Capitol never served as headquarters, but by
December 1780 it was used for quartering militia.
In
the
fall
French
of
1781
soldiers.
it had
At
the
become
same
a
time
hospital
the
for
French
were
using the main building of the College as a
hospital.
4.
What two
standing committees of the House of
Burgesses did Patrick Henry serve on?
At the beginning of the fall 1766 session Patrick
Henry was appointed to two standing committees,
the Committee
of Privileges
Committee
of
Propositions
continued
to
serve
through
5.
on
and
and
these
Elections
and the
Grievances.
He
important committees
1774.
After
the adoption of
constitution in 1776,
legislature
Virginia' s
was
the
referred to as
state
upper house
the
of
the
Council or was
it
immediately renamed the Senate of the Virginia
Assembly?
Under Virginia' s
and Senate existed,
first
constitution both
Council
although only the Senate was
part of the legislature.
The eight- member
Council,
chosen by the General Assembly, was
an
advisory board to the governor who himself had
only limited executive powers.
6.
The 1723 act ( Hening,
that
the
age
limit
Chapter II, May 1723)
for militia
service
twenty -one to sixty years of age."
limit
own
lowered
age
later on?
Did
1641,
Was
counties
the
set
states
from
age
their
limits?
The assembly changed the ages
service
was "
several
1687,
times
1723,
in
etc.).
the
for militia
colonial
On May 5,
period
1777, the
Virginia General Assembly passed a law changing
�the
ages
of
required militia
service
to
16
to
50.
Militia service was regulated by the General
Assembly, not the counties.
7
Did
the
Benjamin Powell
Court House?
receive
the
contract
to
build
Despite the attention given recently to Benjamin
Powell
well
to
as
builder
point
out
light to indicate
of
the
that
Public
no
Hospital,
evidence
that Powell built
has
it
come
seems
to
the Court
House.
According to Carl Lounsbury, the
architectural historian who is researching the
Court
documentation
the
House,
little
construction of
the
identifies
the builder.
Court
survives about
House and none of it
�vol.
7,
No.
5
October
In this
issue of Questions &
Answers
we are
1986
respond-
ing to your request for more information about the
founding of the other British colonies in mainland North
America.
A brief explanation of the government of each
type of colony is also included here.
All of
Britain' s mainland colonies
in North
America were established by companies or proprietors or
under their
colonies
jurisdiction.
under
the
crown,
By 1733 there were thirteen
legally known as the British
crown after the union of England and Scotland in 1707.
Only five were still under under the control of
proprietors
In
or
general,
corporations.
there were three types of English colonies
in America during the colonial period:
tary,
royal,
proprie-
and corporate.
In a royal colony the governor, appointed by the king,
enforced the laws of England applicable to the colony and
He. recomall laws passed by the colonial legislature.
mended appointees to the king for membership in the upper
house. (
He was
The king made the actual appointments.)
also head of the highest court.
The governor was really
the viceroy of the king and exercised in the colony all
the civil and military authority vested in him by the
crown.
In a proprietary colony, the proprietor, who had
received a royal charter granting him the land and special
privileges,
had control and wielded powers resembling
those possessed by royal governors.
exercise executive authority,
summon and dissolve
assemblies,
Of the proprietary colonies,
legislative
the
council,
The
proprietor
could
appoint high officials,
and
approve
or
veto
laws.
Maryland alone had a
composed of councillors selected by
proprietor.
The legislatures of Pennsylvania and
Delaware consisted of a single house, popularly elected.
A corporate colony was created by royal charter to a
corporate political community.
A corporate colony was
free to elect a general assembly,
composed
of
representa-
tives from each town, and to choose its own governor and
other officials.
The colony was then bound together as a
public state to be guided and governed in its civil
affairs by laws, orders, and decrees properly made by the
government without seeking the crown' s approval.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�With the dissolution of the London Company in 1624,
Virginia became the first royal colony and was the model
upon which
other
royal
colonies were
based.
At the close of the colonial period,
thirteen colonies
were
Virginia,
North Carolina,
New York,
New Jersey,
Hampshire,
and
eight of the
royal:
South Carolina,
Massachusetts,
New
Georgia.
The corporate colonies were Cnnnertin„ t and
Rhode
Island.
Proprietary colonies were Maryland,
and
Delaware,
Pennsylvania.
The following is a list of the original colonies other
than Virginia with references to their origins,
settlements,
of
the
and their capitals
first
just before the outbreak
Revolution:
Georgia
Granted to a board of trustees by George
II
in 1732,
Georgia was both a philan-
thropic experiment and a military buffer
against
Spanish Florida.
The
first
English settlers arrived in 1733.
1753 the trustees' charter expired,
In
the colony reverted to the crown.
Its
capital was
Massachusetts
and
Savannah.
The Puritans began full scale settlement
of Massachusetts in 1630 under a charter
granted to the Massachusetts Bay Company
in
1629.
Forced
to
surrender
its
original trading company charter in 1684,
it was issued a new one in 1691 that
united it with Plymouth as the
royal
colony of Massachusetts Bay.
founded by Pilgrims in 1620,
had operated
as
land patent
a separate colony under a
Plymouth,
granted it in 1621 by the Council for New
England.
Boston was the colony' s
capital.
New Hampshire
This colony was first settled by the
English in 1623 under a separate proprietary charter; however, Massachusetts
began to extend its authority over New
Hampshire
in
the
1640s.
The heirs
of
the
first proprietors won a lawsuit against
Massachusetts in 1677.
New Hampshire became a
Two
years
separate
later
royal
�Portsmouth was
colony.
New Jersey
its capital.
Founded in 1624 under Dutch auspices, it
The
was seized by the English in 1664.
colony was
then given to Sir George
Carteret and Lord John Berkeley by James,
Duke
of
York.
In
1676
the proprietors
agreed to divide the colony into East and
West Jersey.
In
1702
the two Jerseys
The
were united as one royal colony.
colonial legislature convened alternately
in Perth Amboy,
the capital of old East
Jersey, and Burlington,
old West Jersey.
New York
the
Settled as early as 1613,
capital
of
the colony was
founded as New Netherland by the Dutch
It was
West Indies Company in 1624.
captured by the English in 1664 and named
New York in honor of its
proprietor,
James,
Duke
first
of York.
New
York automatically became a royal colony
in 1685 when James succeeded his brother
New York
Charles as king of England.
City was the colony' s capital.
North
Carolina
Settled by planters from Virginia in the
1650s,
Albemarle,
as it was called,
was
added to a large grant encompassing both
Carolinas given by Charles II to eight
proprietors
in
1663.
When
South
became a royal colony in 1719,
Carolina
North
Carolina continued as a proprietary
colony until 1729 when the proprietors
surrendered their
rights
to
the
New Bern was North Carolina' s
South
Carolina
crown.
capital.
This colony was established in 1663 as a
proprietorship including North Carolina
and was not actively settled until 1670.
In
1719
South Carolina became a royal
colony because local planters rebelled
against
rule.
Delaware
the proprietors in favor of crown
Charleston was the capital.
First settled by the Dutch and a
small
number
of
Swedes,
Delaware
was
captured by the English in 1664.
In
1684
the Duke of York gave the area to William
Penn.
Delaware remained a part of
Pennsylvania until 1701 when it was
granted
the
assembly,
right
to
choose
its
own
but it shared its governor with
Pennsylvania.
New Castle was
its
capital.
�Maryland
Given to
Lord Baltimore
in
1632,
Maryland
was the first proprietary colony.
earliest
Except
settlers
for
brief
and William
arrived
in
Its
1634.
periods under Cromwell
the Lords Baltimore were
III,
able to maintain their proprietary rights
to Maryland until the Revolution.
Annapolis was Maryland' s capital.
Pennsylvania
In 1681 Charles II gave William Penn the
area that became
Pennsylvania as
proprietary colony.
Quaker commonwealth,
a
Although begun as
a
the colony actively
sought immigrants from other religious
groups in Britain and elsewhere in
Europe.
Pennsylvania
remained
a
proprietary colony until 1776.
Philadelphia was the capital city.
Connecticut
Connecticut was established in 1635
1636 when a number of transplanted
and
Massachusetts congregations settled along
the
Connecticut
group
of
River.
By 1639 another
Puritans
established a separate
In 1662 the two
at New Haven.
colony
were joined under a royal charter.
The
colonial assembly met alternately at
Hartford
Rhode
Island
and
New Haven.
Formed in 1640 by the confederation of
the colony of Rhode Island and of
Providence
offshoots
Plantation,
two dissident
of Massachusetts,
Rhode
Island
received its first charter from
Parliament in 1644.
Providence,
established by Roger Williams in 1636,
was the first
settlement in
permanent English
Rhode Island.
Newport
served as the colony' s capital.
Correction to August 1986 Q & A
In the first answer ( concerning the Wythe and Randolph
houses used as headquarters before the Battle of Yorktown)
Mr.
read
Wythe is said to be a widower in 1781.
a widower
in
1787.
It
should
have
�Answers
Questions
Vol.
In
No.
7,
6
December
1986
1987 our nation will celebrate the bicentennial of the
ratification
of
the
United
States
Constitution.
The
national ceremonies to honor the anniversary will focus on
the important events that occurred during the infancy of
To observe these occasions all six issues
Answers in 1987 will be devoted to some
critical stage in the development of the Constitution
before ratification.
We thought it would be interesting
our
z
republic.
of
Questions &
to
highlight
for
you
in
this
issue
the
significant
events
in the transition from colony to independent nation and
identify the signers of the Declaration of Independence.
Once
again we
answer
your
need
to
remind
questions.
you
Please
that we
send
are
them
here
through
to
her
on Ext.
OF
THE
the
interoffice mail to Jane Strauss at the Davidson Shop or
call
SIGNERS
2449.
DATES
DECLARTION
OF
1760
October
26
George
III
ascends
the
British
throne.
1764
April
5
The Sugar Act is passed by
Parliament;
April
19
colonies
22
tender.
Stephen
Hopkins,
Island,
publishes "
Colonies
1765
March
22
May 15
8
governor
The
of
Rights
Rhode
of
Examined."
The Stamp Act becomes law.
The Quartering Act orders
colonists to
supplies for
June
protest.
The Currency Act forbids the
colonists to issue paper money as
legal
December
the
provide
British
The Massachusetts
the
barracks
troops.
General
and
Court
adopts a circular letter calling
representatives from all colonies to
a congress in New York in October.
A 81- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
INDEP C
�October
The Stamp Act Congress meets in New
7
York.
November
The Stamp Act goes into effect to the
sound of the tolling of muffled bells
1
and
1766
February 13
flags
Benjamin
the
at half
staff.
examined
Franklin,
House of Commons
before
in London,
declares the Stamp Act cannot be
enforced.
March
1767
June
England
18
repeals
Charles
29
of
the
the Stamp Act.
Townshend,
British
imposes
Exchequer,
Chancellor
in
his
Revenue Act duties to be paid on
and
tea,
paper,
glass, lead,
colors imported into the
painters'
colonies.
September
October
4
28
Charles Townshend
succeeds him.
Lord
dies.
North
The Boston town meeting renews its
non - importation agreement, an action
followed in other colonies to compel
a repeal of the Townshend Acts.
1768
The Massachusetts House of
Representatives adopts Samuel
Adams' s
circular letter
February 11
sent
the
assemblies
and
of
orders
other
it
to
colonies,
suggesting united opposition to Great
Britain by discussion and petition.
A " Song for American Freedom"
July 18
Dickinson
is published
by John
in the Boston
Gazette.
October
1
Two
regiments
land in
laws.
1769
Virginia
May 18
British
1770
January 31
Lord
March
5
The
agrees
British
to
enforce
to
soldiers
the
customs
nonimportation
of
Prime
Minister
of
place (
five
goods.
North
Great
of
Boston
becomes
Britain.
Boston
killed,
six
Massacre
takes
injured).
�April
The Townshend
12
1772
November
Committees
2
Revenue Act is
except
repealed,
of
for
the
tax
correspondence
on
tea.
are
first organized by Samuel Adams and
Joseph Warren
in Massachusetts
and
later followed by similar committees
in
1773
December
16
the
other
colonies.
The Boston Tea Party
Benjamin
Franklin' s
Ri se
1774
Progress
and
between
Great
American
takes place.
articles, "
of
the
Britain
and
are
Colonies,"
On
the
Diffgrflancrig
Her
published
in
London.
March
The
31
Boston
Britain' s
Port
first
Act,
coercive
of
receives
acts,
the
king' s consent.
The
May 12
Boston
Committee
Correspondence
colonies
of
recommends
suspend
that
all
trade with Great
Britain.
General
Gage arrives
command
May 13
British
in Boston
troops
to
quartered
there.
The
May 27
Virginia
House
of
Burgesses,
meeting unofficially in Williamsburg,
adopts a resolution calling for an
annual
June
Boston
1
intercolonial
harbor
is
congress.
closed
to
exports
and imports by the Boston Port Act of
March
June
31.
The Quartering Act is passed by
2
Parliament.
June
The
and
British
feed
the
Massachusetts
17
September
1
General
stock
September
5
The
1
Gage
of
First
house
soldiers.
elects
inter colonial
September
colonists must
delegates
congress
to
to
an
meet
in Philadelphia.
seizes
powder
at
Massachusetts' s
Charlestown.
Continental
Congress
assembles in Philadelphia with all
colonies except Georgia represented.
�October
14
The
Declaration
Grievances is
October
26
The First
of
Rights
and
adopted by Congress.
Continental
Congress
1775,
adjourns to meet again May 10,
if necessary.
1775
The
words
of " Yankee
Doodle"
are
written by Edward Barnes and set to
an
old
English
April 18/ 19
Paul
April
The battles
take place.
19
May 10
The
in
Revere
Second
John
15
his midnight ride.
of Lexington
Continental
send
Hancock
chosen
June
takes
Philadelphia.
colonies
May 24
tune.
All
and
Concord
Congress
meets
thirteen
representatives.
of Massachusetts
president
of
George Washington
this
is
Congress.
of Virginia
is
appointed by Congress to be Commander
in Chief of the Continental Army.
June
17
The battle
of
Bunker
Hill
ends
in
a
British victory.
July 3
After traveling twelve days
Philadelphia,
Washington
from
takes
command of the Continental Army on
the
July 6
Cambridge (
Congress
Massachusetts)
adopts
a " Declaration
Common.
of
the
Causes and Necessity of Taking up
Arms."
July 8
Congress
adopts
a
petition
to
the
king,
offering reconciliation.
Samuel Adams and Benjamin Franklin
think this
is
a futile
gesture but
consent to yield to the " moderates"
of the Middle Colonies.)
September
1
This petition of July 8 to the king
from
1776
January 1
Congress
is
refused.
A Continental flag with thirteen
stripes is raised by Washington
before his headquarters
in Cambridge.
�April
6
Congress
opens
colonies
to
the
all
ports
of
countries "
all
not
subject to the King of Great Britain"
and
prohibits
the
importation of
slaves.
April
12
North Carolina is the
instruct
her
first colony to
delegates
to
support
independence.
Virginia
May 15
propose
June
7
instructs her
Richard Henry Lee,
Virginia
ought
to
chairman of the
delegation,
resolution
United
delegates
independence.
in
Colonies
to be
offers
a
Congress " That
are
free
and
and
of
these
right
independent
states."
June
11
A committee is appointed in Congress
to draft a Declaration of
Thomas
Independence.
Jefferson
is
chairman.
July 2
Lee' s
resolution
of June
7
is
adopted
by Congress.
July 4
The
Declaration
of
Independence,
as
drafted by Thomas Jefferson, and
amended,
is adopted by Congress and
signed by its president, John
Hancock.
August
2
The
Declaration
of
Independence,
having been engrossed on parchment,
is signed by the members of Congress
then
I.
CONNECTICUT
Roger
DELAWARE
Caesar Rodney
Huntington
Oliver
Thomas
McKean
Williams
William
George
Read
Wolcott
GEORGIA
Lyman
II.
Sherman
Samuel
III.
present.
IV.
Hall
MARYLAND
Charles
Button
Guinnett
Thomas
George
Walton
William
Samuel
Carroll
Stone
Paca
Chase
�V.
VI.
MASSACHUSETTS
Samuel
NEW
HAMPSHIRE
Josiah
Adams
Bartlett
John
Hancock
William
John
Adams
Matthew Thornton
Whipple
Elbridge Gerry
Robert
VII.
NEW
Treat
Paine
VIII.
JERSEY
John
NEW
YORK
Philip Livingston
Witherspoon
Richard
Stockton
Lewis
Francis
Hopkinson
William
Floyd
Francis
Lewis
John
Hart
tSut allalll .
IX.
NORTH
Joseph
John
saLft
CAROLINA
William
Morris
X.
Hooper
PENNSYLVANIA
Benjamin
Penn
John
Morton
George
James
George
James
George
XI.
RHODE
ISLAND
Stephen
Franklin
Robert Morris
Benjamin Rush
Hewes
XII.
Hopkins
SOUTH
Clymer
Smith
Taylor
Wilson
Ross
CAROLINA
Thomas
VIRGINIA
Thomas
Jefferson
Richard Henry Lee
Benjamin
Francis
Harrison
Lightfoot
Thomas
Nelson
George
Wythe
Carter
Braxton
Lee
Rutledge
Thomas
XIII.
Middleton
Edward
William Ellery
Heyward,
Arthur
Lynch,
Jr.
Jr.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 7, 1986
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/b401a61e7eecfe6ed5a448dca71bb6de.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=UEO5PObXPycOrubZ165AKubG2UFCbtuN2xMTSZNwrjom%7EIdqobEz7eZHND80Y62T5FrVlwj9QIEY0xhxQhipW1UblVuxGpKLxiD618cZdmtpNpSBiRNgk0j4xbjvRRneCZq0ukjw2ikq8-XkwJ95y62WRE-cso4Ii5nxOO402pSLOezfmdM93BLQ2dPCAyByMhEBNY4hvX%7Eod4bfNB4N%7E9pdtyba32AnfcMlWXzqt5dlxNZMDYVDYM0Q9CBLkBtDA9y4SY43q7UeoTm-4kwGp3zSpdeXpXPHdBI-uA0beTBOxLabVKtzQFAy%7EV9zVrAp0TAG4uaMEbOi2Ny-o3QbsQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
1de0ecbe04d3066cb254b429cf9affbf
PDF Text
Text
8Z,
Questions
Vol.
6,
No.
1
February 1985
This miscellaneous
answers
to
Answers
questions
issue of Questions
our
visitors
often
and Answers
provides us with some
As you look at the answers
ask.
it
00
W
Zn
o
may be interesting to relate them to larger concepts in your interpretive
areas.
rm
rm
Do you have any questions that you did not think to ask during your
Core
Please let
Curriculum classes?
ro
us hear from you.
m
to co
1.
What was the population of Williamsburg on the eve of the Revolution?
The total population was 1, 880
469
Black Male
505
517
Black Female
389
The Interpreter, Vol.
Reference:
2.
1,
ma
u
White Male
White
No.
1,
Female
r(LiF
cn
July 1980
Were there tobacco warehouses in the town of Williamsburg?
Tobacco warehouses were not located in Williamsburg itself, but there
was a tobacco warehouse at the ports of College Landing and Capital Landing
Reference:
3.
Peter
Where was " the Exchange"
of
the
town known
east
end of
located in Williamsburg where the Meeting of
for planters and merchants?
Using various sources,
part
0
m
z
z
0
Bergstrom
Merchants was held
at
I
x
48% White
52% Black
7a
Pat Gibbs supports the recent claim that the
as "
the Exchange"
the
Duke of
was
located
Gloucester
in
front
of
the
Capitol
Street.
rr
Reference:
4.
Research Query File, April 28,
Where was
Tazewell Hall,
1982
the home of John
Randolph,
located in
eighteenth -
century Williamsburg?
Tazewell Hall
of what
stood
co
on
a direct
is now South England
Historic
Street.
line
south
of
Since it was
the Magazine
outside
in the middle
the " Restored Area"
Area "),
The
the house was dismantled by Colonial Williamsburg.
interior woodwork of the house was purchased by Lewis McMurran who installed
it in his
Moorhead, "
own home
Tazewell
in Newport
Hall:
News.
For
more
information see,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,
PP 14 - 17.
Reference:
Singleton P. -
A Report on The Eighteenth- century Appearance ",
XIV,
No.
1 ( March,
Marley Brown
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
1955)
0
X
�5.
Does Colonial Williamsburg own all the properties in the Historic Area?
Most properties are owned by Colonial Williamsburg the exemptions being:
Bruton Parish Church, the Bowden Armistead House and lots, the Armistead
sisters' house, and the Masonic Lodge and Kitchen.
The few properties on
long -term lease to the Foundation are:
Tavern,
Reference:
6.
the Print Shop and Bindery,
Wetherburn' s
and the Magazine.
The
Architecture Department
What is the meaning of the term Miscegenation?
The
tarm Migrooanati nn
is
AafinaA
ae marria an
nr
cnhahitatinn
hntmaan
a man and a woman of different races or as interbreeding between members
of
different
Reference:
7.
races.
Random House Dictionary
What is the gold paint on the Coat of Arms on the Capitol and the
Coat
of Arms above
the Palace
Supper
Room door?
The gold is pure gold leaf which is applied over a gold size ( a sticky
substance
8.
like varnish)
which
adheres
the
gold
to
the
wood.
How popular was fox -hunting in the countryside around Williamsburg?
There is no evidence of fox -hunting in the area during the eighteenth
century.
All references to fox hunting are from the Northern Neck of Virginia.
Reference:
9.
Research Queries File,
March 24,
1980
Is there any evidence that cigar smoking was popular in the eighteenth century?
There is no reference to cigar smoking in America until after the
The Oxford English Dictionary includes a few references to
Revolution.
cigars implying that they were unusual and unfamiliar in England during
the eighteenth century.
10.
Were masked balls ever given in eighteenth- century Williamsburg?
There is no evidence of masked balls being given in Williamsburg,
however masks were available.
Reference:
ERRATUM:
Research Queries File,
March 19,
1984.
Please note the typographical error in Q.
issue Vol.
5,
No.
5.
It
is " feme
covert ",
No.
4 in the October
not " femme
covert."
T)
�84Z,
Questions
Vol. 6,
Answers
April 1985
No. 2
In an interview with Graham Hood, Vice President and Chief Curator, we
asked him questions about the collections for the Wallace Gallery and the
refurnishing changes taking place in some of our exhibition buildings. While
responding to our questions, Mr. Hood sets forth both the rationale for the
exhibition of our collections in a gallery setting as well as in period
rooms within the historic area.
Why do we need a Decorative Arts Gallery?
1.
The idea of great collections and a special place to show them is a
In the early
well established one at the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
1930s Mr.
Rockefeller " envisioned the ultimate enrichment
of
the collection
of antiques at Williamsburg until it should become second to no collection
After the great burst of acquiring in the
of its kind in the country."
1950s and 1960s, the trustees formally adopted in 1971 the principle of
establishing a museum at the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation when funding
available.
Several years later the proposal was first made to
This finally became
Mr. and Mrs. DeWitt Wallace that they fund a museum.
For over fifty years we have accumulated great
a reality in 1979 - 80.
became
collections,
and it is only proper that we should exhibit them.
will illuminate,
in
2.
enrich,
The
gallery
and extend the interpretation we already offer
the Historic Area.
So,
you see the gallery as a logical and practical extension of the
Historic
Yes,
Area?
When Mr.
John D.
Rockefeller,
Jr.,
and the Reverend W.
first began their collaboration on Colonial Williamsburg,
A.
R.
Goodwin
their vision
revolved around a town that would reflect as accurately as possible its
eighteenth- century
appearance.
As Mr.
Rockefeller wrote after the fact:
I wasn' t trying to recreate a lovely city, nor was I interested in a
I was trying to recreate Williamsburg as it stood
collection of old houses.
in the eighteenth century."
This sentiment was echoed by Dr.
Goodwin,
who
felt that our first priority in acquiring furniture should be " colonial
furniture known to have been made
and used in Virginia."
as their dream an authentic recreation of Williamsburg.
Both these men had
As we know,
however,
concepts of " authenticity" differ from generation to generation,
as research
discoveries are made.
the
For example,
Wallace
Gusler' s
research
on
furniture actually made in Virginia ( published in his book Furniture of
Williamsburg and Eastern Virginia, 1710 - 1790 1979) has changed our way of
Furthermore, increased underthinking about the furniture used locally.
standing of the appearance of rooms in the eighteenth century has prompted
us to make changes, resulting in what we believe to be more accurate
period interiors.
We now believe that " museum- quality" pieces made in
New England, Pennsylvania, or London would not have been in Williamsburg
So., while the Historic Area portrays a specific
in the eighteenth century.
place and a specific time, the Gallery will provide a broader English and
colonial
American
context.
A Bi \ lonthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�We made many changes in our exhibition buildings in the 1970s,
which
left us without a place to show our vast and important study collection
of
furnishings ( not just furniture,
prints,
but
also
textiles,
metals,
ceramics,
and paintings.)
Many of these pieces, such as the textiles, are
not only inappropriate for our period houses but also too fragile for the
climate and
traffic
conditions
in our
exhibition buildings.
Going hand -in hand with our increasing knowledge of regionally identifiable
groups of objects has been
a heightened awareness
items would have been placed in eighteenth- century rooms.
of how
Research in
this country and abroad, which we incorporated into the refurnishing of
the Governor' s Palace in 1981, made us aware of many inaccuracies in our
buildings.
Fnr instance_ we roaliza that parlours and dining
In the past, we had
rooms contained large sets of matching chairs.
exhibition
sometimes used an " art museum" approach of putting several pairs of superb
chairs from various regions in the same room.
We have also
striven to place objects
in a believable context,
on print and painting sources of the eighteenth century.
illustrate sets of chairs lined up against walls,
this
practice in various rooms in most of
example,
Also,
the parlours at the Wythe,
the
Period
based
graphics
and we have duplicated
exhibition buildings;
Peyton Randolph,
for
and Geddy Houses.
inventories show that older and consequently less expensive articles
were moved away from more public rooms.
We have illustrated this practice
at the Brush -Everard House where the William and Mary chest on frame
previously in the downstairs chamber has been moved to one of the upstairs
chambers.
In addition, inventory sources occasionally give descriptive
entries that extend beyond the usual cursory ones.
however short and cryptic,
Such
descriptions,
provide us with invaluable information about the
furnishings of eighteenth- century Virginia homes
Therefore,
our aim has
been
to make
changes
in the exhibition
buildings based on the most up - to -date research.
Interpreters may miss
some of their favorite pieces from the exhibition buildings, but they
will be
3.
replaced with more
appropriate
and
authentic
furnishings.
Exactly how will the gallery " illuminate, enrich,
and extend"
the
interpretation we offer in the Historic Area?
By providing the wider context of Anglo- American decorative arts
of
the seventeenth and eighteenth
abundance of
similar types
of
centuries with which
objects we see in our
to
compare
the
exhibition buildings.
Making comparisons is one of the best ways actually to see intrinsic
qualities -- comparing the kinds of objects normally found in colonial
Virginia with those
Virginia
typical for other colonies helps
characteristics.
in the gallery,
in different
us better understand
Quality levels are also important distinctions- -
different quality levels will be seen side by side, not
buildings.
And you will simply be able to see the objects in
the gallery better closer up, and not several feet away across a period
room.
Finally, special exhibitions such as the initial " Patron and
Tradesman" exhibit will organize and highlight themes that are very
appropriate to the Historic Area, but are too spread out there to grasp
This exhibit in particular will strengthen
clearly.
craft shops and house museums in the Historic Area.
the
relationships between
�8Z,
Questions
Vol.
6,
No.
Answers
June 1985
3
June is here and we find ourselves thinking about ways to enjoy
ourselves.
Most of our summer visitors are here on their vacations,
and
it might be interesting for them to learn about the ways eighteenth- century
Virginians
spent their leisure
time.
Notice how many of their amusements
and celebrations were competitive and actively shared with others.
The answers to these questions are from Jane Carson' s Colonial
Virginians at Play.
1.
Did colonial
Virginians participate in team sports?
There were no organized games in the modern sense,
but individuals
joined together in informal teams for games of cricket,
and the like.
2.
What was the favorite amusement of colonial
football,
Virginians?
Visitors were greatly valued
Visiting was the favorite pastime.
as a relief from the loneliness and monotony of daily life on
far -flung plantations.
Eating, drinking, and dancing were significant
parttof most
visits.
to
4-
3.
Is it true that some guests stayed for long periods of time?
Friends and family from far away might visit for days or weeks,
but neighbors within easy riding distance slept at home and
frequently offered sleeping to other guests when the host could .
not care for them all.
4.
What kinds of entertainment did the plantation host provide for
his guests?
When guests were few in number, they were taken into the family
group and became part of the daily routine, i. e., gentlemen might
enjoy a morning ride over the home quarters, while the ladies
attended to household affairs
of
course.
and personal
appearance and gossiped,
Everyone gathered around the dinner table early in the
afternoon to enjoy the company and the food and drink for several
hours.
5.
How did Virginians spend evenings?
After dinner, they strolled through the gardens in good weather or
devoted the remainder of the day to cards and billiards, dancing and
Running through the entire day was
music, eating and drinking.
spirited
practical
conversation,
which
was
practiced
as
substitute for newspapers and books.
a
social
art
and
a
Towns like Williamsburg
offered more variety in entertainment with plays, balls, assemblies,
lectures,
and so forth.
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�2-
6.
Did they celebrate birthdays?
Birthday parties were annual customs with many Virginians. Landon
Carter, for example, on his birthday invited guests for dinner
and to spend the evening.
7.
How did they celebrate a wedding?
The best excuse for a big house party was a wedding.
Throughout
the colonial period the gerrmmny was performed by an ,4nglican
minister and usuallyf ttiie hone of the bride, and the entertainment
consisted of cards and dancing, an elegant supper, a cheerful
glass,
and a convivial song.
Although the lesser folk had less to do with, they made as much
of weddings as their betters.
During the morning of the wedding
day, friends of the groan gathered at his father' s house and
accompanied him to the bride' s home in time for the ceremony at
noon.
On the way they amused themselves with a headlong race,
started with a Indian yell and finished at the bride' s door,
black betty ",
The wedding breakfast was a hearty meal of
where the winner received and shared the prize, "
bottle of liqour.
beef, venison, pork,
a
chicken, and perhaps ] par steak with plainly
cooked vegetables and pie, served by the bride' s attendants.
Dancing began immediately after the meal and lasted until dawn.
8.
Is is true that Virginians loved to dance?
John Kello writing from Hampton to a London friend in 1755 stated:
Dancing is the chief diversion here, and hunting and racing."
Governor William Gooch shortly after his arrival in Williamsburg
wrote to_
tiis brother Thomas Gcoch December 28,
Gent
1727: "
The
le jnjgn] and Ladies here are perfectly well bred, not an
ill Dancer in my Govjern
9.
Who provided music for dancing?
Music for dancing was usually played by members of the family. A
German officer who visited MDnticellO during the Revolutionary War
later observed that " all Virginians are fond of music."
Music
teachers, like dancing masters, traveled about from plantation to
plantation.
Blacks played fiddles,
instruments for their own dances,
10.
french horns,
banjos,
and other
as well.
Did they entertain outdoors?
In good weather outdoors fish feasts and barbecues were popular
with Virginians of all classes and ages.
Men and boys went fishing
in the morning, and all the guests gathered under trees by the
riverside for dinner.
While servants cooked the
fish or roasted
the pigs, the young people danced to the music of fiddles and banjos.
11.
Did they enjoy reading aloud",
Sometimes the company spent an agreeable evening reading selections
from plays and novels.
If there was a gentleman present, he did
the reading and the ladies listened with eager attention, their
sensibilities" greatly moved while their hands lay idle, holding
neglected
needlework.
William Byrd often entertained the ladies by
reading aloud to them, sometimes from his own writings.
�3-
12.
What kinds of games did they play'
In Virginia homes card and board games were favorite indoor
amusements that ladies shared with their husbands and guests.
The following are sane of the games they enjoyed:
Whist, an ancestor of modern bridge,
this becCuLe the favorite
four handed card game.
Piquet was a two- handed game similar to modern ruby but scored
somewhat like cribbage and played like whist.
All Fours ( also called pitch) is still played today as seven -up
or setback.
Put, a card game popular with the lower classes, was a primitive
ancestor of modern poker.
Loo was more genteel than put and a faster gambling game played
ITEM three cards or five and either limited or unlimited stakes.
Cribbage was a five card game of 61 holes.
Today we prefer the
six- card game of 121 holes, but the rules are essentially the
same,
and the count for both hands and melds is unchanged.
Chess, the ancient game of intellectuals and introvertwas not
popular among convivial Virginians.
Draughts was the same game as modern checkers.
Like chess,
draughts had a limited following in the colony.
Backgammon had greater
ppeal in Virginia, probably because it is
an easy game to learn7aand the use of dice immediately suggests a
greater element of chance in the play.
Dice were ocmnon items in household inventories all over the colony
and standard equipment in taverns.
Throughout the colonial period,
hazard and other dice games were favorites of the middling sort,
and occasionally the gentry played then.
Billiards equipment was part of the furnishings in taverns and in
planters" homes throughout the Virginia colony.
This game of
skill was played by both men and women.
Goose, a board game similar to parcheesi, this game is a race
between two or more players, who move their men along a track
as the throw of the dice directs.
Games for children.
In tidewater Virginia where the weather is
warm half the year children could play out of doors a great deal
of the time.
Hop- scotch, leap -frog, blindman' s bluff, hide and
seek, prisoner' s base, rolling the hoop, flying kites as well as
ring and counting tames were popular.
�4-
13.
What kinds of sports or outdoor activities were popular with '
Virginians?
Virginians of both sexes and all ages and classes were at have in
the saddle.
Their horses were " their pleasure and their pride."
Horseracing developed from informal, often impromptu tests of
speed and endurance.
In addition to horseracing, occasional
boat races on rivers provided similar activities for social
gatherings.
Fish and game were welcome additions to colonial tables, but
fishing and hunting were done more for sport than necessity
after the first years of settlement.
In the opinion of visitors, colonial Virginia sporting tastes
placed cockfighting immediately after hunting and horseracing.
Wrestling, next to cocking, was standard recreation in the
back country and among the lower classes. For the gentry,
boxing was a polite accomplishment like dancing and fencing.
The art of fencing could be learned in Virginia, where a number
of competent teachers were available.
The duelling contests of Virginia fairs were cudgeling matches
patterned after the traditional village_
sport. in England.
Another outdoor sport, bowling, was enjoyed in England by both
men and women of all
classes.
Ordinary people used public alleys
and greens maintained by towns and taverns and the well - do
tohad private bowling greens on their estates. Two European forms
of the sport came to the colonies.
The
Dutch brought ninepins
to New York, and the English brought bowlAk to Jamestown where
they played in the streets.
The ginit resembled a discus but with a hole in the middle.
Its
homespun variant is pitching horseshoes.
Before he laid out the bowling green at Westover, Byrd often
played cricket with energetic friends.
A modern cricketer
would not recognize the informal, sport these Virginians played.
The British national game as it is played today did not begin
to develop until the Hambledon rules were drawn up in 1774.
Another ball game colonial Virginians played was fives or
hand tennis, what we call handball today.
The origin of the
name and of the game is uncertain.
Farly badminton,
called shuttle -cock, was a fashionable pastime
in seventeenth -century England, but in colonial America only
children seem to have played it.
Ice skating and swimming were
popular in the appropriate seasons.
�5-
A Reminder:
You are invited to attend the Department of Historical
Interpretations June Enrichnment Lecture.
Subject -
Jefferson in Williamsburg
Lecturer -
Sylvia Cooke
Time -
Monday, June 17, 1985
Place -
P. T. B.
If interested please call Missy Rodney
5: 30 -
Ext. 2401
6: 30 p. m.
�Questions
Vol.
6
No.
ISZ,
Answers
August 1985
4
This
issue of Questions and Answers responds to a
few of the questions asked by the summer visitor.
We
are sure you received many more during this busy season.
Let us
bear
from
you.
Please
Strauss at the Davidson Shop.
get in touch with Jane
Send her a note or call
Ext.
2449.
1.
When did numbers start appearing on playing cards?
The modern 52 -card deck of playing cards evolved
from the ancient tarot fortune -telling cards in which
all
cards
are
numbered.
Designs of playing cards varied
There is an 1801 deck from Spain that shows
numbering of cards of each suit, from one to twelve, at
widely.
the upper right hand corner, but this numbering did not
An American
become customary until many years later.
version printed in the mid- nineteenth century had
numbers in two corners and was marketed under the
brand -name " Squeezers."
C. P. Hargrave' s A History of
Playing Cards is an intriguing and very informative work
on
the
2.
subject.
Was it illegal to make pottery in the colonies or
was it just discouraged as a cottage industry?
The making of pottery as well as other kinds of
manufacturing were discouraged in England' s colonies.
The
Mother Country' s purpose in settling colonies was partly to
create markets
for goods manufactured in England and as
sources
materials.
of
colonial
raw
potters.
The "
Poor
There
is
considerable evidence of
Potter"
of Yorktown by C. Malcolm
Watkins and Ivor Noel Hume tells about William Roger' s work
and shows examples of local pottery.
3.
After someone received tobacco notes for their tobacco
at a warehouse and later exchanged the notes for goods
at a store,
how would the storekeeper cash in or retire
the
tobacco
note?
After the establishment of the warehouse system in 1730,
all tobacco which was presented for and passed inspection was
stored in public warehouses until it was loaded aboard ship
for
export to Britain.
good
and
merchantible"
Planters whose
received
crops were
receipts
for
deemed
their
tobacco
in the
form of warehouse notes or " tobacco notes."
These
notes came in two forms:
1)
Crop notes which were issued on
a " whole- hogshead" basis ( minimum 950 pounds), and which
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�guaranteed
the
return to
the
planter
of
originally presented for inspection;
which were
issued
for
quantities
the
same hogshead
2)
and
less than
Transfer
notes
a whole hogshead
and which guaranteed only the return of a like quantity of
tobacco.
Unlike Bills of Exchange ( or a modern third party
tobacco notes"
circulated freely without need for
check), "
endorsement.
In
specific
had
note
the
absence of
been
lost or
a
special
stolen,
declaration
anyone could
that
a
present
any note to the warehouse that issued it, and receive the
that the note represented.
Thus, if a planter chose
to consign his tobacco to a British merchant, he need only
tobacco
give his notes to the captain of the ship who would take his
tobacco " home."
warehouse,
The
captain
then
received the tobacco,
presented
the
note
at
and loaded his ship.
the
If,
instead, the planter used his notes to pay a debt to a fellow
or to buy goods from a local merchant,
planter,
simply were " passed
on"
until
someone,
the notes
typically a merchant
or his agent, presented them at the warehouse where they were
issued, collected the tobacco, and loaded it aboard ship for
export
to
It
Britain.
is
important to remember that
as
tobacco notes
of
either variety were not legal tender for anything other than
taxes
levied
in
tobacco,
their cash value
varied wtih the
current price of the tobacco which they represented.
The
only thing constant about tobacco notes was the pounds of
tobacco stated on
got back the same
the face of the note.
The holder always
amount ( weight) of tobacco for which the
note was originally issued,
regardless of its current market
price.
4.
Why was such a small denomination of money such as the
half penny minited in England for the colonists use?
Did they feel a 1/ 2 penny would be reasonably big
enough?
To understand the context of the Virginia half penny,
Virginia' s only " official" coin, two points must be made
First,
after 1760,
when
about Virginia and English money.
Virginia had its own paper currency, bills of fixed
denominations were available in the following denominations:
f
5,
f
3,
f
2,
f
1,
10
shillings,
5
shillings,
2
shillings
6
2/ 6),
one shilling 3 pence ( 1/ 3) and one shilling
1 /).
These were printed in Williamsburg, under the
direction of the Treasurer of Virginia.
By the mid 1760' s
pence (
the demand for a coin for small change was being heard by the
Board of Trade in London, and in 1763, King George III
authorized a copper half penny to have value only in terms of
2
�Not until May of 1775 was the
half penny actually circulated in the colony, and as royal
government was effectively ended with the flight of Lord
Dunmore in the spring of 1776, its life as an " official" coin
Virginia' s " current money."
was
short indeed.
The
second point
to be
made
is
about
it was a
the
size
or
but
denomination -- half -penny. True,
many, many items in the Virginia economy were priced down to
a farthing, or quarter of a pence.
In fact the farthing was
still
in use
comparison,
in Great Britain
the half penny -
as
late
-a value
as
small coin,
the mid
of two
1950' s.
By
farthings - - as
w
deemed to be very useful indeed by Virginians seeking small
change
5.
on
the
eve
of
Who were Mason
the
and
American
Dixon
Revolution.
for whom
the
Mason - Dixon Line
is named?
From 1763
to
1767
English astronomers
and surveyors
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon measured the dividing line
between
Pennsylvania
West Virginia
to
the
to
the
north and
south.
Maryland
and
present
By complex measurement and
computations, they fixed the border, settling a long and
bitter controversy between the Calverts of Maryland and the
Penn family of Pennsylvania.
6.
Could
or
would more than one type of meat be smoked in a
Were fish smoked there?
What was done with
smokehouse?
meat stored in a smokehouse while other meat was being
smoked?
Answer "
Would
No"
to
it
the
be
smoked
first
again?
two
questions.
Smoked
hogmeat
could remain in the smokehouse indefinitely and was
unaffected by additional smoking.
Smoking adds flavor but, used alone, is an insufficient
meat -preservation process in warm climates such as Tidewater
Virginia.
For this reason,
salting was the standard method
of preserving beef, pork, and fish for home use and
export -- especially to the West Indies - in eighteenth- century
Hams,
shoulders,
and sides of bacon commonly
received the combined salting -followed -by- smoking method of
curing.
Householders varied the salt cure by adding pepper,
alum, hickory ash, molasses, sugar, saltpeter, or a
combination of these to the first rubbing but generally
agreed on burning hickory wood in their smokehouses.
Virginia.
3
�What
7.
are
sea biscuits?
These are hard, dry, flat cakes of bread known for their
sea biscuits
Packed in tin lined casks,
keeping quality.
would keep a year, and were essential for long sea voyages.
8.
What is Williamburg' s elevation above sea level?
Williamsburg is about 85 feet above sea level.
PLEASE
NOTE
When the
August
31,
sun rises at Colonial Williamsburg on Saturday,
reveille will
peal
across
Market
Square
and
some
300 re- enactment soldiers will snap to attention.
The
recreated
encampment
will come alive by 9 a. m.
drills.
Across
campfire cooking and military
the other side of the square,
merchants
up their finest wares in fair
booths,
will
begin
to
That' s
two days
and
Times
and
Fair
Labor Day weekend,
filled with the
Days,
The
9 a. m.
Publick
sounds,
to 10 p. m.,
Times
of
the
at
August 31 -
sights,
market days in the 18th -century capital.
are Saturday,
peddlers
street
with
street
on
will
set
entertainers
assemble.
Publick
Williamburg,
and
the
and
to
September 1 ...
smells of fall
Hours
and Sunday,
mid-
Colonial
of
9 a. m.
late -1700s
the
event
to 6 p. m.
in
Williamsburg was a period when the General Court met and the
Virginia merchants attended
Meeting of Merchants was held.
this gathering to set commodity prices and exchange rates.
Sometimes these
the Virginia
of
traders,
functions coincided with a business session
legislature.
The various events drew
planters and socialites making it a natural time for
an extensive
fair
or market.
Publick Times often took place simultaneously with a
general muster of every able- bodied male in the Williamsburg
The law required that most men aged 16 to
state militia, available for service during
military district.
60
serve
in
the
times of emergency of civil disturbance.
4
�Questions
Vol.
6,
No.
Answers
October 1985
5
We
wish
to
thank
those
of
you
who
did
respond
to
our request in Septemer for questions asked of you during
the final days of Summer.
We encourage you to keep in touch
with
The
us.
attached
form is
questions while they are
to
Jane
Strauss,
just
a
reminder
still on your mind.
the Davidson Shop,
to
jot down
Please
return
or call her on Extension
2449.
Miscellaneous
1.
Questions
When', were "
Greenbacks"
name
first
greenbacks"
were
first issued
from the devices printed
The first U. S.
called
the
4
issued?
in
1862;
they take their
in green ink on the
backs.
paper currency was issued in 1775 and was
Continental
dollar;
the
first
Virginia
paper
16
tri
money appeared in 1755.
2.
rn
m.
m
Are there any records of many young girls being
apprenticed
to
craftsmen?
op`
Four females are named in the 110 York County
apprenticeships
between
1747
and
1789.
Earlier
County records contain several others.
were
apprenticed
trades (
many
3
for
spinning,
young
girls
household
weaving,
were
work
or
York
Generally,
the
and knitting).
these
textile
So,
no,
ro
on
0
9e
not
0
apprenticed.
mo
For what actual crimes did the county courts use the
stock and pillory?
How long was a person punished in
the
stocks
and
0s-
pillories?
Only one law ( dated 1696) in the Statutes at large calls
for punishment in the stocks.
If a person as convicted
of drunkenness and couldn' t pay the fine of 10 shillings
mA
m
c
mm
or 100 pounds of tobacco for each offense, he or she was
put in the stocks for two hours for each offense.
1
The pillory was more frequently mentioned as an
pz
instrument of punishment,
and usually ear nailing was a
part of being put in the stocks.
that call for use of the pillory:
1705
and
Here
are
the
statutes
1748 - - For
any person' s ( including a slave' s)
second conviction of hog stealing, two hours in the
pillory on court day with both ears nailed to it; at the
s
end
of two
hours,
the
ears
to
be
cut
off
close
to
the
nails.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
G")
�1705, 1748,
ID
and 1753 - -A runaway servant convicted of
using a forged or stolen certificate had to make
reparation for lost ime, pay recovery charges,
two hours in the pillory on court day.
1723
and
1748 - -A Negro mulatto,
or
and
stand
Indian who gave
false
testimony in the trial of a slave for a capital crime
had one ear nailed to the pillory for an hour, then the
ear cut off and the other ear nailed to the pillory and
cut off in an hour, as well as 39 lashes on his or her
bare
back.
1734 - -"-.
Indian
witness
4y
who .
false testimony in
trial of a free Indian for murder or other
one ear nailed to the pillory for an hour,
cut
off
and
the
other
ear
nailed
and
cut
felony had
then
off
the
ear
after
an
convicted
of
hour.
1748 -- Anyone,
except
a
slave
or
servant,
using a forged or counterfeited pass for transportation
out of the colony had to pay MO and recovery charges,
and stand in the pillory, two hours on court day;
for
forging or counterfeiting a pass, or for using one
knowingly, the offender stood in the pillory two hours
on court day
and received thirty lashes on his or her
bare back at the whipping post.
1772
and
1776 - - For
the third conviction of altering or
counterfeiting the brand of a flour manufacturer or
inspector, the offender had to stand in the pillory as
long as the court directed.
Judging from these few and very specific statutes, the
stocks and pillory may have been little use, except for
convicted runaway servants.
But each county court house
was required by law to have these and other instruments
of punishment.
They seem to have been importqnt as
visible
4.
reminders
of
potential
punishment.
What is the origin of the Latin phrase over the
fireplace in the Apollo Room of the Raleigh Tavern?
In
it
is
carved " Hilaritas
Sapientiae
Proles."
et
Bonae
Vitae
This is translated as " Jollity, the offspring
We haven' t found a literary
source of the quotation; it may be original with the
of wisdom and good living."
Apollo
Room.
2
�D
5.,.
Were wedding rings worn in eighteenth -century America?
If: so, were they worn on the left or right hand?
inventories,
Wedding rings are mentioned in wills,
other
documents
reference
groom,
to
of
the
colonial
exchange
We
Virginia.
of
rings
can
find
between bride
and
no
and
so wedding rings may have been worn only by
In
women.
fact,
it was
not
a
general
custom
for men
to
wear wedding rings until World War II.
John Davis in the Department of Collections is checking
on the customary design of eighteenth- century wedding
rings and may possibly find more about who wore them and
on
6.
which
hand.
What is the process of smoking meat?
smoke
and what
kind
of
wood
is
How long must it
used?
Nicholas Cresswell gives a fairly specific description
of the ham curing and smoking process as it was done in
colonial
Virginia:
The bacon cured here is not to be equalled in any part
of the world, their hams in particular.
They first rub
0
them over with brown
sugar
and
let
them
This extracts the watery particles.
in
salt
for
10 days or a
fortnight.
hickory ashes instead of saltpetre,
the
saltpetre
and
gives
them
a
lie
all
night.
They let them lie
Some
rub
it makes
pleasant
them
with
them red as
taste.
Then
they are hung up in the smoke -house and a slow smoky
fire kept under them for three or four weeks, nothing
This
buy hickory wood is burnt in these smoke - houses.
gives
them
an
agreeable
flavour,
far
preferable
to
the
Westphalia Hams, not only that, but it prevents them
going rancid and will preserve them for several years by
giving them a fresh smoking now and then.
Journal of Nicholas Cresswell,
1774 - 1777,
7.
p.
199
Why do the English and French use the motto " Honi soit
qui mal y pense "?
Is this motto used by the Order of
the
Garter?
Honi soit qui mal y pense is old French for " Evil to him
who
evil thinks."
The story is that in the reign of
King Edward III ( 1327 - 1377) a lady was embarrassed when
her
garter
came
loose
at
a
formal
function.
To
set
her
at ease, the chivalrous king came to her rescue, said
and founded the most
Honi soit qui mal y pense,"
honorable and exclusive of English orders
the Order of the Garter, which ever since
expression as its motto.
of knighthood,
has . used that
�8.
What
is
Several
the
origin
different
of
the
coins have been
the eighteenth century in America,
Spanish
milled
dollar was
9
term dollar?
the
called dollars,
but
north and south,
silver
coin
in
the
most
It became the standard of value for
frequently found.
the paper money of several English colonies before 1776
and became the basic unit for the paper currency issued
by or authorized by the Continental Congress. Following
calculations and reports made by Thomas Jefferson in
1776,
1784,
and
the dollar
became
in
unit of our decimal currency system.
in
fuller details
should also
1792 the basic
Those interested
consult John
J.
McCusker,
Money and Exchange in Europe and America, 1600 - 1775
Chapel Hill,
University of North Carolina Press, 1978).
4
�Answers
Questions &
This issue of Questions and Answers on transportation in
eighteenth century Virginia is a follow up to the essays on
the
6.,
Vol.
transportation in the November 1985,
6
No.
issue
of
Interpreter.
I
1.
Where
did
people
park
carriages?
There was no designated spot
for parking on the street.
Sometimes
horses were tied to rails while others were
When not in use carriages were
trained to stand still.
and so forth. In
stables,
put in carriage houses, sheds,
other
2.
anywhere
words,
out
of
the
elements.
How many different kinds of wagons and carriages did
people use in eighteenth century Virginia?
The most numerous types mentioned are berlins,
chariots,
chairs,
phaetons,
post
curricles,
chaises,
stage
chariots,
wagons,
calashes,
landaus,
choachees,
coaches,
wagons,
sulkies,
and carts of all description,
including tumbrils and drays.
3.
Who
owned
carriages?
carts,
wagons,
In 1768 in James City there were some 419 taxable
Seventy -two wheeled vehicles were taxed, and
persons.
there were far more two -wheeled vehicles in the area than
four- wheeled
vehicles (
60
chairs,
7
and
chariots,
5
coaches).
Edward Ambler and Robert
coach,
and
chariot
chariot,
and
Carter Nicholas
chair.
John
Randolph
each owned a
owned
a
and Benjamin Waller owned a chariot
coach
and
Taverns in Williamsburg rented horses and wheeled
chair.
vehicles
for travelers
and others
in need of
transportation.
4.
What
did
Prices
of
a
carriage
carriages
cost?
ranged
widely.
A
coach
and harness
for two horses was valued at L20 in the 1768 inventory of
Governor
elaborate
Fauquier' s
estate.
Governor
Botetourt' s
state coach was apparently worth much more.
Ishmael Moody' s estate included a chair and harness for
two horses valued at L9
in 1749.
Henry Wetherburn' s
estate included a chair and harness appraised at B10 in
1760.
In
1760,
Westwood Armistead' s estate
four wheeled chaise
and
included a
harness worth L30.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�5.
How many miles could a traveler cover in a day?
The distances covered in a day by eighteenth- century
travelers varied considerably depending on the weather,
Whether
the travelers' intentions, and road conditions.
or not the traveler was on horseback or in a vehicle made
One
no difference as to the miles covered in a day.
person mentioned that he went 15 miles in a chair in 2
1/
2 hours while his servant,
in a chair with baggage and
The same
the old horse" traveled 45 miles in a day.
rode the stage in 1786 from Petersburg to Suffolk ( 91
in
miles)
18
hours.
The post rider,
the
Post (
man
who in about 1738 rode horseback
general
post office
three miles
from New
below
Fredericksburg on the south side of the Rappahannock
River)
left
to Williamsburg each week,
New
Post
on
Thursday mornings and arrived in Williamsburg on
Saturdays.
He
allowed
from two to two
and a half days
for the trip, stopping to rest and refresh himself and
While there are rare
his horse at necessary intervals.
instances of George Washington making the trip between
Mount Vernon and Williamsburg in a little more than two
he usually took from
days ( probably nearer three days),
four to six days for the journey and stopped for business
or
visiting
en
route.
Andrew Burnaby traveled through Virginia in 1759 and
1760, moving around at a rather leisurely pace. Most days
he
made
between
25
and
On one occasion he
35 miles.
commented that he arrived at Winchester " after a long
day' s journey of above fifty miles."
Robert
Hunter,
a
Jr.,
London merchant,
thought that
the
road between Williamsburg and Chickahominy Ferry was
One
exceedingly pleasant."
roads
in 1746
I ever
the
saw,
6.
Virginia
traveler observed
some of the best
that
were "
and infinitely superior to most in England."
Why are the carriage wheels dish shaped?
The dish shape of
two
directions
counteracts
axle
arm
the
then
perpendicular
downward
the wheel
both
pressure
puts
to
down
the
the
is to
counteract pressures
and
outward.
and
outward,
spoke
at
ground,
the
pressures.
2
the
The
the
bottom
strongest
in
dish
camber
of
the
of
the
wheel,
position
for
�7.
How much did
it cost
to board horses
at
taverns?
The following were the going rates in several Tidewater
counties
horse
each
in
the
stable
1770s:
per
night,
horse
for
7
24
1/ 2
pence;
hours,
11
room and fodder for each
stable room and fodder for
1/ 4
pence.
The
rates
were
set by the county or city court in each jurisdiction.
Those rate
schedules posted in taverns in the Historic
Area today are composites based on court records of
nearby counties and cities as none survives for the
period
8.
for the Williamsburg area.
What roles did blacks play in transportation?
Many stable hands and drivers of carriages, carts, and
wagons were black.
Many of the jockeys in quarter path
and course racing in the eighteenth century were blacks,
one of the most famous being Austin Curtis, who raced in
North Carolina and Virginia
9.
skill,
He
from 1759 to 1809.
renowned
for
his
judgement,
and
courteous
was
manner.
Were horses taxed in any way in colonial Virginia?
Taxes were levied on horses from time to time.
During
and after the Revolution, Virginia taxed horses, at a
rate of two shillings for every mare,
in
the
were
10.
1782
to
1786
an
colt or horse;
additional
two
and
shillings
added.
Where
In
years
were
the
horses
kept?
seventeeth
and
eighteenth
centuries
Virginians
passed a law requiring that horses of inferior size and
quality be fenced in order that quality of Virginia
horses not be further degraded by indiscriminate
however,
that horses were still
It appears,
breeding.
Hugh Jones
running free in the eighteenth century.
wrote, "
I have known some spend the morning in ranging
several miles
in
the woods
to
find and catch
only to ride two or three miles
court house,
or
to
a
to church,
horse- race."
their
horses
to the
Dr. Johann
D.
Schoepf
recorded in 1783, " With the exception of those horses
upon which as racers a high value is placed, all the
others are let run about in the fields for pasture,
without giving them in the hardest winter any protection
against
the
inclemencies
of
the
weather . . .
and
many
of
these poor beasts are actually forced to get what little
nourishment they can from under ice and snow."
3
�In Williamsburg,
indicated
and
in
paddock
and
How
oxen
are
There
are
Some
private
lots
had
stables
those on the town' s periphery had
areas;
stables
11.
taverns provided stablage for horses as
answer # 7.
pasturage
adjacent.
steered?
five
basic
commands
with
several
regional
variations:
GEE --
Right
BACK - - up
HAW --
Left
HUP --
move
WHOA --
forward
stop
A goad or whip is used in conjunction with the voice in
order
to
get
the
oxen' s
attention
rather
than
as
hay,
straw,
punishment.
12.
What were
horses
fed?
In the eighteenth century beans,
crops were
13.
How did
fed to
common
fodder,
root
horses.
folk move
around?
Did many people own
horses?
Mostly walked or rode.
The Reverend Hugh Jones wrote in
1724 that Virginians were " such lovers of riding, that
As noted
almost every ordinary person keeps a horse."
above,
some vehicles- and horses were hired out by tavern
keepers.
14.
Was
there
public
transportation
little
horse
in
the
eighteenth
century?
There was
drawn public
transportation
in
the
eighteenth century in the Tidewater and Peninsula area.
There apparently existed for a short time in 1760 a stage
that ran between Hampton and Williamsburg,
about
32
miles.
Ferries
were
available
a distance of
for
a
fee
to
carry travelers over waterways.
15
What rates were charged for riding ferries in the
eighteenth
century?
The charges for ferriage in the eighteenth century varied
somewhat, but the following prices from 1757 seem to be
typical:
fourpence
for
shillings
for
with
a
for a man:
fourpence
coach,
chariot, or wagon
shilling fourpence
its
driver;
chaise;
eight
fourpence
a
horse;
driver;
two
one
for a cart or four wheeled chaise with
pence
for
for
hogshead of
a
a two -wheeled chair or
4
tobacco
or a
head
of
J
�cattle;
one penny for a hog;
lamb was
16.
charged
one
What was
the most
and each sheep,
fifth of
the
fare
for
popular breed of horse
goat,
or
a horse.
in
Eighteenth- century Virginia?
It is difficult to
short
answer this
We
sentences.
suggest
question in
that you
Virginians at Play ( hard cover),
17.
p. p.
just a
few
see Colonial
112 - 118.
Why do the English drive on the left side of the road and
the
Americans
on
the
right
side?
We have searched early Virginia laws and find no colonial
There may have
legislation concerning traffic patterns.
been an established custom in a place like Williamsburg
where
vehicles
records
do
not
and
horses were
reveal
what
more
that
concentrated,
custom was.
but
our
Curators
from the Henry Ford Museum have heard it said that " the
tradition of mounting a horse from the left ( due to the
position
walk in
drivers
road."
of
one'
s
combined with
sword),
the
desire
to
the center of the road,
led the early Conestoga
to drive their vehicles on the right side of the
The transportation division at the Museum of
History and Technology at the Smithsonian
Conestoga wagon,
driven
as
it
was
feels that the
from positions
on
the
left, greatly influenced vehicles to drive on the right
side
of
the
road.
This
takes
us
back
The
to
about
British
1750
so
practice
there may be earlier precedents. "
of driving to the left is rooted in chivalry and the wish
to
be
able
to
fight with
the
right
5
hand..."
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 6, 1985
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/cd687df51123e556d81df4fcfa5a8990.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=rv5vOtFaVzZJSFFVGUexWEMCVpvk8qOctELjSWkZQzKPHYtgs68eKUn5IHvcXDfC-HkdnXwhyxd8moIMtwIsS9RIuYPLRyGQqaFCVwzMvRZA7xrPMy16Y62Iw%7EMqAuyqY%7E%7EoFNDO-xIbb01nLD-tklOMXJNoQpb%7EKNldxIgs6ZEQR62GEKk9LzDAu3RnIx-T5YVb5Id4XMFF696VDEHR8ppQWV5w55ml53H0kovWOM-t1Opu22s3Wbb4PJGJ4GsUY8BgOv8MU4wg6hcQDDRgX0OJc4LDXRDYBXiL9aQguEg4nDxa6HdE5svjSd8WuqABmFDEKwW%7EXgcm9gbPn0ymSQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
0c61765264a815d7c168244d2baf4635
PDF Text
Text
8Z.,
Questions
Vol
5,
No.
As
February 1984
1
interpreters we know
that our
interpretations are more
meaningful to our visitors when we relate
interests
Answers
and
to
their contemporary
During this election year many of our visitors
concerns.
will be thinking of themselves as voters and about the way their own
communities
are
In
governed.
this
issue we
have
consolidated
some
questions and answers from earlier issues which discuss the franchise
for colonial Virginians and the way this community of Williamsburg was
governed
in
the
What was
1.
eighteenth- century.
a
freeholder?
Any person who owned land,
Who was eligible
2.
including women and persons underage.
to vote in Virginia in the eighteenth -century?
Suffrage was granted only to free white males, ages 21 and over,
who
met
certain
and Negroes,
other
Women
qualifications.
whether free or
slave,
could
not
election laws did not mention religion except to require
Quakers make affirmation before voting.
What were
3.
Indians
vote.
The Virginia
were disenfranchised.
that qualified
the other qualifications for enfranchisement?
So far as free white adult males were concerned,
requirements were
not very
Freeholders
exclusive.
franchise
could
vote
who
owned
25 acres with house and plantation or,
or had a lifetime lease to) a.
There were other avenues to
b.
a house and part of a lot in a town.
freeholders with land which did not conform to these
the ballot box:
regulations,
or men owning no land at all could vote provided they
owned L50 visible property The. cash or possessions).
In
addition,
men could vote who had served a five year apprenticeship in a trade in
Norfolk or Williamsburg and who were heads of households
and
inhabitants in those
towns
following
their service.
All
those
eligible
may not have exercised their right to vote, but it cannot be said that
a
large mass of free adult white males was disenfranchised.
4.
How was
the original
land acquired
for
the development of
Who was authorized to buy the land and
Williamsburg after 1699?
where were funds obtained for the purchasing of it?
When the Virginia Assembly passed the law which made Williamsburg
the
capital
in 1699,
the
land at Middle Plantation,
with
the exception
of the College of William and Mary, was privately owned by John Page,
Henry Tyler, and others.
and entrusted 230
trustees
The colonial government purchased 475 acres
to a board of
subdivided and
sold
twelve " Feofees or Trustees."
town
lots.
The
proceeds were
The
used
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
to
�reimburse
the
Capitol and
government.
the
town ports.
Tidewater Towns,
5.
pp.
The balance of the land was used for the
For further information see John Reps,
143 - 146.
After incorporation of Williamsburg, what was the role of the
mayor and alderman in land granting?
The mayor and aldermen had no part in granting Williamsburg lots;
that was
the function of
the feofees,
as directed in the 1699 act
establishing the City of Williamsburg. (
synonomous
6.
The
term " feofees"
is
with " trustee ".)
When was Williamsburg incorporated?
On July 28,
1722,
the city was granted a royal charter in the
It should be noted that Williamsburg was
functioning as the capitol of the colony from 1699 when the General
Assembly passed " An Act Directing the Building the Capitoll and the
name of King George I.
City of Williamsburgh." (
T. R. G.
Report,
p. 15)
From
1700
to
1704,
the
Assembly met at the College until the Capitol was nearly complete.
7.
How was the city to be governed?
According to the charter, the officers of the city corporation
included a mayor,
a recorder,
six aldermen,
and
twelve common
councilmen.
8.
What was the difference between an alderman and a councilman?
The first alderman were named in the charter and, when necessary,
replacement aldermen were chosen by aldermen from the common council.
Common councilmen were elected by the aldermen from the free
inhabitants of the city. (
yearly,
All city officials except the mayor,
served during good behavior.)
elected
Aldermen, along with the mayor and recorder, held all judicial
authority and exercised certain executive powers relating to law and
order.
to
9.
Legislative and major executive powers were given collectively
the mayor,
recorder,
aldermen,
and common council.
Who in government was responsible for the maintenance of the
streets of Williamsburg?
The duties of the common council also included responsibility for
the construction and maintenance of public facilities.
Since
the
streets of Williamsburg were in so " ruinous a condition" in 1761 that
it was " unsafe to pass in the night in any coach or other carriage,"
the city was authorized to spend as much of its taxes as was necessary
to keep the streets and lanes in repair.
�10.
Were there fees placed on goods sold on market day?
Tolls were
levied
on
livestock and goods
sold at
the market,
the
Tolls were
revenue from which was to be used for the city' s benefit.
not to exceed 6d. on every beast, 3d. on every hog, and one - twentieth
Freemen of the city were
the value of any other commodity sold.
required to pay only half the toll charged non - residents.
11.
When were the markets and fairs held in Williamsburg?
According to the charter, the city was to have two markets a week
Wednesday and Saturday), and two fairs a year ( December 12 and April
23).
12.
Did Williamsburg have a night watch?
Williamsburg had no night watch until 1772,
Gazette
for
several
decided in July,
patrol
the
years
1772,
streets
from
had
waged a campaign
for
although the Virginia
one.
The
council
to appoint " four sober and discreet people to
ten
o' clock at night until
daylight...."
They
were to cry the hours, apprehend all disorderly persons, have charge of
Each watchman
the fire engines, and assist in extinguishing fires.
would receive a yearly salary of L30.
3
�Answers
Questions &
Volume 5,
No.
April 1984
2
we hope,
The following questions and answers,
refresh your memories about Colonial Williamsburg' s
will
policies
In
concerning the preservation of the town of Williamsburg.
addition
often
What
1.
The
suggests
The
include
a
few
period
do
we
the
to
we
title, " Colonial
represent
the
buildings
was
time
demand
Courthouse
the
longer
after
of
that
existed
that
date - -we
a
us
are
our
in
1747
cannot
specific
next
say we
Magazine
of
the
the
one
rather
restored
building
that
the
is
the street is
anachronisms
a
represent a
but
decade,
The
example,
to
1776.
capital of
a reconstruction
the 1750s and across
area - - for
to
interpretation
1747 and the Public Records
date.
Because
1770.
restored
even
of
period - -up
that
when Williamsburg was the
The present capitol is
built
within
many
Williamsburg ",
colonial
Virginia.
its appearance during
the
questions
represent?
Foundation' s
that
answers
answer.
the one destroyed by fire in
office
to
are
to
reconstructed
colonial
of
here
asked
was
present
that
built
specific
ambience
year
of
no
after
or
the
capital city of colonial Virginia and the quality of life of
its
citizens.
What was
2.
to
the
Colonial
the
preservation
restoration?
Could
early
Colonial
The
The
48 - 49.
pp.
1.
Williamsburg' s
All
buildings
colonial
Where
or
the
parts
exercised
3.
Within
ten
policy
in
regard
time of the
principles of
restoration
or
principles
parts
tradition
irrespective
2.
the
ten
the
code?
Colonial
was published in Kocher & Dearstyne,
Its Buildings and Gardens ( Williamsburg,
list
Williamsburg:
1949),
Williamsburg' s
of buildings at
you give us the
of
their
the "
represents
should
be
great
destroying
or
which
the
retained
persists
discretion
in
buildings
should
be
them.
area"
colonial
demolished
in
be
date.
tradition
restoration
longer
should
actual
buildings,
before
buildings
persists
classical
of
of
were:
or
all
work
classical
which
no
tradition
removed.
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�4.
Old
buildings
restoration
and
if
and
in Williamsburg
wherever
area"
possible
restored
preserved
there
on
rather
outside
possible
their
than
the
should
be
original
moved
left
sites
within
the
area."
5.
No surviving old work should be rebuilt for
structural reasons if any reasonable additional
trouble
6.
There
in
and
expense
should
the
be
held
treatment
between "
would
of
in
suffice
the
where
the
the
preserve
of
minds
buildings
Preservation"
to
the
it.
architects
distinction
object
is
scrupulous retention of the surviving work by
ordinary
is
the
largest
7.
Such
of
the
practicable
preserved
Restoration"
and "
repair,
recovery
rather
form
number
than
preservation
old
of
where
the
object
by new work;
buildings
the
should
be
restored.
and
restoration
work
requires
a
slower pace than ordinary modern construction work,
and a superior result should be preferred
to more
rapid
8.
progress.
In
restoration
of
the
period
commendable
9.
In
the
intact
10.
Where
a
a
new
is
it
of
The
The
terms
of
but
no
them
are
others
must
attempt
by
use
synonymous.
of
are
Scotland
Britisher (
or "
Briton "),
Englishman
because
the
and
there
buildings
details
is
that
should
where
they
be
no
there
will
persist
sites.
be
used,
the
old
should
they
as
be
should
closely
made
be
as
to
means.
the
Englishman?
one
and
recorded,
secured.
theatrical
to
materials
properly
be
prospect
not
some
old
materials
of
approximating
appropriate
England,
can
old
materials
British flag?
interchangeable?
native
of
original
English?
they
they
removal
their
character
antique"
When
or
use
character,
reasonable
on
possible,
3.
when
securing
demolition
seems
the
and
terms
British
and
Are
English colony?
An
countries
Englishman
of
Great
is
a
Britain.
Wales.
Every Englishman is
but not every Britisher is an
Britons are Welshmen or Scots.
There was no British flag until after 1707 and the
Union;
before that time there was an English flag.
Act
a
of
of
�4.
What
is
the
Originally
wealth,
meant
weal
also
or
century,
meaning
voice
mean
the
weal,
or
body
an
in
politic
shared alike by all) and
which
together
welfare),
or
of "
used
public
by side with general
By the sixteenth
ordinary English term
constituting a nation or
the
the
republic or democratic
Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts,
and
5.
called
How,
commonwealths
when,
and
whole
people
nave
seventeenth century
supreme
people - - a
states
Common
welfare."
side
in which
In the
which
commonwealth "?
weal- public.
interest.
state
term "
common (
order
and
the
commonwealth became an
the whole body of people
the
a
on
of
well -being
common wealth were
public
state,
two words --
weal (
something
weal,
derivation
power
is
state.
a
it came
vested
in
to
the
Virginia,
Kentucky are
the
only
today.
by whom were
new
counties
in Virginia
formed?
The House of Burgesses created counties when there were
The
enough people in an area to justify that action.
residents of a locality often petitioned for the division of
a
county
6.
into
two
or
was
the
value
What
eighteenth- century
more
new
of
real
a
counties.
slave
estate
in
comparison
Did
values?
this
to
change
during the eighteenth century?
Between
1765
approximately . L2
average
adult
and
1775,
rural
sterling per acre
male
slave
was
land
appraised
beginning of
the eighteenth century,
10
shillings
an
an
average
7.
What
Virginia
of
was
acre
and
an
sold
for
in York County and
at 4.54.
the
adult male
average
slave
was
At
the
the
price
was
valued
at
X30.
the
average "
life
of an eighteenth- century
kitchen?
There
that most kitchens
We now know that many
outbuildings were less substantially built than are those
that survive or have been reconstructed in Williamsburg.
However,
it is suspected that a kitchen that lasted only
lasted
five
for
years
is
absolutely no evidence
only about
would
have
five
been
years.
an unfortunate
deviation
from
norm.
the
Current scholarship regarding detached kitchens in
the Chesapeake centers on their role in the segregation of
different social groups rather than their capacity of
prevent
the
spread
of
fires.
3--
�8.
Who
committed
people
Three justices of
to
the
asylum?
the peace in the county where the
prospective patient lived were summoned by the sheriff of
Once sent
that county to pass on the sanity of the person.
to the hospital the Court of Directors apparently could
refuse
9.
to
Were
No,
period
in
admit
the
person
if
taxes determined by
there
was
Virginia.
no
tax
on
they
the
thought him
unsuitable.
size of your house?
buildings
during
the
colonial
�841,
Questions
Vol.
5,
No.
Answers
June
3
In this issue of Questions
1984
and Answers we look at the Virginia
countryside to examine the agricultural base of the colony' s economy and
its
commercial
connections.
What was happening in the fields and woods of
Virginia during the month of June? Consider the great number of Virginians
approximately 98 %) living in that countryside working in the fields and
dependent upon a productive crop.
Wayne Randolph has furnished the following answers to our
a
questions.
1.
What were the agricultural products of the Tidewater from 1710 to 1775?
Tobacco was the primary cash crop through most of the 18th century,
particularly during its first half.
However,
during the second and third
quarters wheat and corn gradually emerged as important export commodities.
By the Revolution these staple grains nearly equaled tobacco exports, but
by the end of the century they had virtually replaced tobacco as the leading
export
crops
of
the Tidewater
region.
Planters protected themselves from
an unstable tobacco market by diversifying their cash crops, thus slowly
changing their identity through the 18th century from planter to farmer.
2.
What agricultural activities typically occurred during the month of June?
June was ( and is)
a growth month
for most Tidewater
crops
and animals
During the third or fourth week of June a
team of workers was assembled to focus its labor on the week -long critical
Reapers using sickles or cradle scythes, gatherers
event of harvesting wheat.
with
one
significant
and binders,
loaders,
exception.
carters,
and stackers worked intensely,
sometimes
through the evening, to take the grain at or near its peak ripeness, before
it fell to the ground naturally.
About two weeks prior to wheat harvest,
planters and farmers had just
finished transplanting or " pitching" their last tobacco seedlings into
Begun in May, transplanting during rainly days,
previously rasied hills.
and replacing failed seedlings, was quickly giving way to nursing them until
established, followed by frequent weeding and worming.
Corn,
like tobacco,
was in its final stages of late planting,
or
The " forward" or April
replanting of dead hills through early June.
plants would receive their second weeding before " lay by" or last weeding
in July.
Having regained their strength on spring forage, Tidewater cattle, hogs
and sheep would continue to graze and grow on pasture, meadow or wooded lands
until
fall.
Although relatively insignificant due to regional use of corn
fodder ( leaves and tops) and winter range grazing, any hay to be stored would
have received its first scythe mowing by June.
A Bi- Nlonthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�3.
Where did these agricultural products go after they left the
plantation or
As
farm?
mentioned above,
most
of the minor items
and a portion of
the
cash crops ( except tobacco) were consumed locally, either on - site in the
manner of subsistence,
or through sale to neighbors or various individuals
living in a nearby town such as Williamsburg.
For example,
we know that
Carter Burwell provided various meats to Christiana Campbell,
of William and Mary,
the College
and a number of other townspeople each Monday through
the fall and winter months.
However the bulk of a planter or farmer' s income was acquired through
export
of
demands.
selected commodities
New England
lumber
to meet
larger
and more volatile
market
The intercolonial export market consisted mainly of coastal and
trade
and ships'
in
corn,
stores
to
wheat,
beef
the West
and pork,
with the
addition of
Indies.
Many of these products were
also shipped to Portugal and the " Wine Islands" through the 18th century, in
And from 1760 through 1770, England
addition to Spain periodically.
imported large quantities of wheat during a period of domestic grain
shortage.
�Answers
Questions &
Vol.
5,
No.
August
4
This issue
responds
to
the
1984 Core Curriculum faculty.
Colonial Virginia' s
the export
interpreters
submitted
to
the
The questions illustrate the complexity of
international
of tobacco
questions
1984
and grains
trade
and
and the
commerce which was based on
importation
of English manufactured
Questions on shipping and the Tobacco Inspection Act as well as
questions about people involved in this commercial activity --merchants,
tradesmen, and workers - -help us to better understand the workings of
Harold Gill has provided the answers to your Core
Virginia' s economy.
goods.
Curriculum questions.
At
the
end of
the
issue
are some miscellaneous
questions.
1.
What happened
to
the price of
tobacco
relative
to
the price
of
goods
during the colonial period?
From my work, with everything expressed in Virginia currency, the
retail price of imported goods remained fairly stable from 1730 to
1775 while
2.
the
What impact
trend in
the price of tobacco was
did the war have on
the tobacco
upward.
trade?
Of course, the monopoly of the British tobacco market was lost to
the
colonies,
but
trade was
opened with
British blockade of the American coast,
3.
Did most people
companies
insure
their
Can you tell
colony.
disrupted.
and where were the insurance
cargoes with English insurers.
The Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730 was
process
trade was
the
located?
Most people insured their
4.
cargoes
Because of
France.
of
trade
as
a
us
some of
result
of
a significant event in the
the changes
this
act?
that occurred in the
What
are
some
of
the
other ways in which the act influenced the life of the colony?
There is no single article that sums up the changes that occurred as a
result
of
this
Act.
An essay would be required to give an adequate
assessment of the Tobacco Inspection Act on Virginia' s economy and
society.
The following references are suggested as they deal with
some
1730.
of
the
economic
and
Richard Morton' s,
political
ramifications
Colonial Virginia,
Vol.
that
occurred
II and James
after
Soltow' s
Economic Role of Williamsburg.
5.
How were
tobacco
inspectors
chosen?
Tobacco inspectors were appointed by the governor with advice from
the council from a list of people recommended by the county courts.
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�6.
Did the inspector get a fee for each hogshead or only for each
hogshead
passed?
The inspectors received a salary ranging from L25 to L50 per year
and did not receive fees
for tobacco inspection.
tobacco was delivered from the warehouse,
The fees were paid into
to paid a fee for each hogshead received.
the
7.
colonial treasury.
Did the governor receive part of the income from the inspected tobacco?
No.
The money was paid into the colonial treasury and was used to
pay salaries of the inspectors
8.
When inspected
the person it was delivered
and rents for the warehouses.
Was there any reference of concern about the honesty of the tobacco
inspectors?
I have seen only a few comments questioning the inspectors' honesty.
9.
How large were the ships taking tobacco to England?
Tobacco ships ranged in burden from about 100 tons to about 350 tons
and could carry nearly 600 hogsheads of tobacco.
10.
Were ships built and owned by Virginians?
Shipbuilding was an important industry in Virginia from the seventeenth
century
A substantial
onwards.
number of
ships
were
owned
and operated
by Virginians especially those engaged in the West India trade.
11.
Did most tobacco ships have assigned cargo before arriving in Virginia?
It is impossible to say whether or not most ships had cargoes awaiting
their arrival, but many of them certainly did.
12.
What
is " ballast "?
Ballast is a heavy substance used to improve the stability and control
the
draft of a ship.
Stone was
often
used
as
a ballast.
When a ship
arrived " in ballast" there was no marketable cargo on board.
13.
What was Virginia currency?
Virginia currency was gold and silver coins that circulated at established
values.
In 1755,
as a result of wartime
financial need,
paper money backed by future tax receipts.
for
all
debts
except
quit
issued by the government,
rents.
Williamsburg,
14.
For
a
discussion
Soltow, The Economic Role of Williamsburg
1965).
Were all merchants just retailers,
other
tender
They were essentially promissory notes
used to pay government debts.
of Virginia currency see James H.
Virginia issued
The bills were legal
or did some do wholesaling to
stores?
There were many merchants in Virginia who engaged in both the wholesale
and
retail
trade.
�15.
Did prices
differ for the same
There were some variations,
16.
item from one store
but prices were
close
to
another?
in most
stores.
Do we have evidence of how much local stores might depend on
Virginia goods or would they just import from England?
Most merchants
did not retail Virginia made goods
at
all.
They sold
almost exclusively West Indian and European goods.
17.
When asking for the " latest fashion" in goods from England,
the
English merchant
seem to
how did
respond?
English merchants generally took it seriously with the result that
the " latest fashions"
were often in evidence in the colonies before
they were seen in Britain outside of London.
18.
Were goods produced in New England of better quality?
There is no reason to think that New Englanders produced goods of
better quality than those produced elsewhere.
19.
What were the advantages of buying goods from a certain merchant?
If
a person had a choice
of retailers
to patronize - and most people
did - then it was a question of which merchant had the best prices,
best
20.
selection,
and offered the best
terms.
When people ordered goods from English merchants,
did they generally
seem
satisfied?
Yes,
it was to the advantage to the English merchant to keep his
Virginia customers satisfied.
21.
How long would Virginia merchants generally keep a debt on their
books before taking it to court?
Merchants avoided taking a customer to court to collect a debt if
at all possible and such a step was taken only if it became clear
that the customer would not pay for some reason.
22.
Did the merchant
charge interest on the debt?
Generally, but not always,
a
customer made
interest was
23.
interest was charged after a year.
regular payments
not
and
the
account
was kept
charged.
Was the situation different on credit when dealing with an
English
merchant?
Not substantially.
If
current,
�4-
24.
How many merchant account books for Williamsburg stores exist?
As far as I know there are no account books for Williamsburg merchants
that
25.
date before the
Revolution.
Were there many public auctions?
Public auctions seem to have been as commonly held as they are today.
26.
How often did a private person keep account books?
It
27.
is
impossible
to
determine
the
answer to this
question.
Do we have many examples of household accounts?
No
28.
What were
some
of
the
reasons
for the
labor shortage?
Virginia was a developing colony with a rapidly growing population,
so the demand for goods and services was greater than the supply.
In addition, agriculture was highly profitable, and many skilled
workers became
farmers.
The shortage
of skilled labor was
across
the
board - -in all trades and in all areas of the colony and remained
so
29.
until
the
Revolution.
How many skilled workers were there in Williamsburg?
It is impossible to know how many skilled workers were in Williamsburg
at any given time because of the destruction of so many public records.
About 25% of the adult white males in the city were skilled workers.
30.
Did
tradesmen
do more or
less
cash business
after
the Tobacco
Inspection Act?
The Tobacco- Inspection Act of 1730 should not have
amount of cash buisness transacted.
31.
affected the
Did most tradesmen keep books?
Even
though
few survive,
the evidence is
that most
tradesmen did
keep books.
32.
Is
it
While
true
it
is
that blacksmiths made
true that Hugh
horseshoes?
Jones wrote
that horses
did not need
shoes
because of the sandy soil, the evidence is very clear that most,
not
all, horses were shod.
There
are numerous
charges
if
in blacksmiths'
account books for shoeing horses.
33.
Did tailors import the material they would use or did they use goods
from local stores?
Because we have no
question.
However,
purchased supplies
tailors'
account books,
merchants'
from them.
it is difficult
account books
show
that
to
tailors
answer
this
sometimes
�34.
How were slaves
trained
to be skilled
craftsmen on a plantation?
Slaves were often trained by skilled indentured servants on the
Another
plantation.
to
35.
skilled
option
open
to
owners was
to
apprentice
slaves
artisans.
What did it cost to bring an indentured servant over from England?
A passage from England to Virginia cost about H1l.
36.
How much
did
a skilled slave
cost?
Up to about H100 depending on skill level, age,
37.
What
did it take to
maintain a servant
and other factors.
or a slave
for a year?
There are so many variables associated with the question of maintenance,
that I am unwilling at this time to respond to the question.
38.
Were
slaves
paid wages?
No.
However,
slaves
were
sometimes
allowed
to
accept
tips
and might
be allowed to perform odd jobs for people for which they were paid.
Of course, such conditions were available to only a small number of
slaves.
1
39.
How much did slaves buy?
Because they had access to very little money,
little.
Most purchased nothing at all.
40.
What
did slaves
make
to
slaves purchased very
sell?
I have found very few references that indicate slaves made objects to
sell.
There is evidence, however that they sold poultry and garden
produce.
41.
Were there any Jews in Williamsburg?
The only Jew I have been able to identify in Williamsburg before the
Revolution was Dr.
John de Sequeyra,
a graduate of Leyden University.
He arrived in Williamsburg in 1745 and died here in 1795.
42.
What other nationalities were in Williamsburg?
Most of the inhabitants of Williamsburg were of British origin, however
there were some of French origin such as
the Pasteur,
Maupin,
and Marot
families.
43.
What
religions were
represented in Virginia?
Most people attended the Anglican Church - -the established church in
Virginia - but there were Quakers, Presbyterians and, later in the
-
eighteenth century, Baptists and Methodists.
�44.
If a journeyman died, was an inventory taken of his property?
It was as likely for a journeyman' s
as
anyone
personal estate to be inventoried
elses.
The following questions cannot be answered presently by research.
It is doubtful that some of them could ever be answered because they
require information that is usually not recorded.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Were prices for goods different in the Carolinas?
What were the accommodations for a journeyman?
Were many journeymen married?
How many businesses passed to sons?
5.
What was the attitude toward black skilled slaves?
6.
What standard of living did a skilled worker have?
7.
Were cats
8.
Where were most blacks buried?
9.
What were the relationships between indentured servants and
at all
common as pets?
slaves working together?
10.
How many windmills were there in Williamsburg?
For the question about
the Masonic Lodge
I suggest
that
the
questioner look at George E. Kidd, Early Freemasonry in Williamsburg,
Virginia, ( Richmond,
1957).
�Questions (%
Vol.
5,
No.
Answers
J
5
October 1984
During the last decade the legal rights of women have been examined
and
there has been an increase in legislation to
rights
for women under
insure more equitable
the law.
In order to interpret eighteenth- century
women more accurately we are using this issue of Questions and Answers
to discuss some questions about their legal status.
1.
What legal rights did a married woman in the eighteenth century have?
When
a Virginia woman married,
her
incorporated into that of her husband,
legal
existence was
suspended
any other income that might be hers.
What legal rights did a widow in the eighteenth century have?
Widows
and
execute deeds,
single women could
and
be
sued,
enter
into
contracts,
dispose of their estates by will, administer the estates of
deceased husbands,
widows,
sue and
and
serve as guardians
of minors.
spinsters were denied participation
Corbin sounded a faint note of womens'
But
all
in politics.
women,
Mrs.
wives,
Hannah
liberation when she wrote her brother,
Richard Henry Lee, that " Widows should not be taxed for their property they
control,
since women do not have the right to vote."
3.
is a dower right?
What
According to common law a widow had the right to a life interest in one
He could not sell or take this right away
from her during her lifetime without her express permission, nor could he
will it away at his death.
The widow was also entitled to outright ownerthird of her husband' s land.
ship of a part of her husband' s personal property.
two children in the family,
If
there were more
than
the widow received a full third of the slaves
but only a child' s portion of the remaining personal property.
Furthermore,
she could not sell or give away her share of the slaves.
4.,
co
What is meant by the term femme co vert?
ert -
Coverture in common law referred to a married woman' s being one with
She was, in legal terminology, a femme colvert so long as
remained married.
She could not own property as an individual unless
her husband.
she
a special premarital contract had been prepared.
She
could not
make
con-
tracts or gifts or write a will without her husband' s express consent,
nor
could
she
initiate
a
suit
at
common
5.
law.
What is a marriage or premarital contract?
A single woman or a widow could make a premarital contract with her
intended husband reserving all or a portion of the property she brought
to the marriage for herself or her children.
Marriage
contracts
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
that
RIGHTS-
or
who not only came into possession
of her personal property and a life estate in her lands, but also took
2.
LEGAL
EIGHTNCEINTURY
�0
used third party trusts to bypass the penalties of coverture and were
enforceable in courts of equity might have permitted a married woman to
control the property she brought to the marriage.
A recent study shows
that these were little used in Maryland for a girl' s first marriage,
and
there is scant reason to believe that Virginia women were any more prudent.
6.
If a woman made an unfortunate choice of a husband,
was divorce possible?
There was no divorce, but she could be legally separated,
neither party was free to remarry.
7.
in which case
If a woman deserted her husband how was she treated by eighteenth century society?
A woman' s desertion
of
her husband represented
a final
act
of desperation;
leaving the woman a social outcast.
8.
Was
it possible for a man to disinherit his wife at death?
No,
a husband could not disinherit his wife at death,
yet he could
nonetheless waste her property during her lifetime.
9.
Did marriage enhance a woman' s
Yes,
her
status?
marriage still offered almost the only way for a woman to enhance
status and make her future secure.
If
she
remained
single,
she was
likely to spend most of her life as a servant to others or as a dependent
in someone else' s house and might well fall mercy to charity or poor relief
when she
could no
longer support herself.
10. Describe the education that a girl in the eighteenth century received
and compare it to the education that a boy received.
in
the various
social
How did it differ
classes?
When parents were in a position to liberally school all their children,
conceptions
of " education
as
is
suitable for women"
remained limited.
Fathers making provisions for minor children by will often directed that the
girls spend only a year or so at school, while their brothers were often
to have an additional six months to a year learning writing as well as
reading. (
Little or no education for women proved no severe handicap so
long as many men remained unlettered and most important economic transacIn these circumstances women were
tions were negotiated by word of mouth.
However, once sons began
usually privy to most of their husband' s affairs.
to get appreciably better educations than daughters, women found themselves
at a decided disadvantage.)
In less affluent households later eighteenth- century daughters may have
had little formal schooling, but they did spend more time learning the art
of housekeeping - -a task that was becoming more complex as families became
larger and women spent more time in home care, needlework, gardening,
dairying, poultry- raising, brewing, cooking, preserving, and soap- and - candlemaking.
�Not surprisingly, rich fathers were more likely than poorer men to
provide some education for their daughters.
Wealthy fathers often engaged
tutors who provided some advanced learning for all their children.
In 1774 the girls of the affluent Carter family at Nomini Hall did not
learn Latin like their brothers, but were reading in a variety of sources,
writing, and even learning arithmetic.
Time was also devoted by both
sexes to the social graces -- dancing, music, and polite conversation that
were essential to the increasingly formalized and intricate courtship
ritual.
11.
Did a woman who ran a business ( such as Mrs.
Campbell) have to pay tithes?
Heads of households, whether male or female, were responsible for paying
tithes on all males
sixteen years
or older ( black and white)
females sixteen years or older in their households.
compassed
able,
servants,
women like Mrs.
household who were
12.
slaves,
and
sons.
and black
This would have
en-
Although white women were not
Campbell were liable
for
tithes
on persons
tith-
in her
tithable.
In eighteenth- century England,
a married woman could make a will only
with her husband' s consent,
if
or
she had
reserved that
contract.
married,
after her death he could have the will
a difference between women' s
the
Chesapeake
in a
If the husband gave his consent while they were
marriage
In
right
a wife
legal
rights
could renounce
in
the
husband' s will and elect to take her dowet rights
property ( moveable property)
instead.
After
claim dower rights in personal property,
1693
set
England
legacies
in land
aside.
and
Was
there
the Colonies?
given her
in her
and personal
English women
could not
should the husband fail to will
them to her.
13.
In a family with only daughters and no sons to inherit the family
estate,
over
how would the estate be distributed and who would have control
it?
In a family where there were only daughters and no sons to inherit the
estate, the daughters would usually get equal shares of both lands and
personal property after the Mother' s dower rights or legacies were deducted.
Few fathers who wrote wills
daughters.
However,
favored more distant relatives over their
in some cases
daughters might lose out
if descent of
the family land had been restricted to male heirs only.
Some single girls did manage the property they inherited, but this
would have been fairly uncommon.
Until
the daughter reached
the age
of
legal majority, her mother, step- father, or other guardian managed her
Often they continued to manage the daughter' s affiars after she came
Of course,
once the
of age, especially if the estate was a valuable one.
daughter married, her husband took control.
estate.
�Note:
Mary Wiseman' s experimental tour " According to the Ladies" is scheduled
25, and 30, 10: 30 12: 30 beginning at the Powell -Waller
house.
If you are interested in attending one of these tours, please make
for October 23,
a- reservation
through
the Escorted
In November of 1984,
and experiences,
will open at
Tour
in recognition of
an exhibition entitled,
the Virginia Museum of
through January 6,
1985:
Coordinator.
the
importance of women' s
VIRGINIA WOMEN:
Fine Arts
roles
A Cultural Heritage
in Richmond. -
November 10,
1984
�Questions &
Vol.
5,
1.
No.
Answers
December
6
1984
Were county courts in Virginia more responsive to the needs and will
of the community than county courts in England?
Any answer to the above question must begin by noting some of the
differences between the English and the colonial Virginia county courts
and also differences between the sizes of county populations and the
percentages
of
freeholders
in
those
populations.
had often many times larger populations,
freeholders
than in Virginia.
such as the King' s Assizes,
the King' s revenue,
In
In England,
counties
but proportionately fewer
England,
also,
several
other
courts
the exchequer courts to try cases involving
and ecclesiastical courts, both the archdeacon' s court
in each diocese and the
Courts of Appeal and Probate in each archdiocese
York and Canterbury) as well as of some other ecclesiastical jurisdictions,
took cognizance of certain cases
that in Virginia all came before the
county court.
The Virginia county courts, like the General Court at
Williamsburg, had a wide jurisdiction, including cases that in England
Also, the generally much
would not have been tried in county courts.
higher proportion of white freeholders in the colony made their county
courts
more
responsive
As generalizations,
of
cases
to
a wider spectrum of
the
free white
inhabitants.
the Virginia county courts handled a greater variety
and answered to a greater proportion of the total free population
than in England.
2.
What is the significance of the fact that a much larger number of
cases tried in the Virginia county courts were civil cases rather
than
criminal?
cc
An overwhelming majority of cases tried in the county courts of
colonial Virginia were civil cases tried by common law or chancery
procedures.
First, because criminal charges on conviction of which a
free person might suffer the loss of life or member could be tried only
in the General Court or after 1710 in twice annual Courts of Oyer and
Terminer ( December and June) in Williamsburg. Second, since law arises
from the need to secure order and property in society and property was
more widely held in Virginia than England and since the county courts in
Virginia had original jurisdiction in all but the most minor disputes
over property, the great majority of cases tried in the county courts
were civil cases.
Because the maintenance of a strong credit system was
crucial in the relatively cash scarce Virginia economy, a majority of
these cases were actions of one sort or another to recover debts.
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
C
�3.
Why did merchants and officials prefer to use the Hustings and
York County Courts instead of the General Court for their ' vil
cases?
Will
Merchants and officials preferred to bring their suit in the
amsburg Hustings Court or the York County Court rat er than the
Court
Gener
there
or
for two
to
first,
after 1740 the
eral
f ^
r
v
d Aldermen)
was
of
made
than
mere
of which had
and without
the
interminable
de
Governor and Council,
or Hustings
als
or
merchants
ays in the
most
of
General Court,
whom
Court
or
were
planters
York County Court,
t
a co
the
to
the
facto
specializa
system of
on of
these
two
courts
represents
colon' al Virginia became or remained
d wishes of ' owerful inhabitants of the colony.
needs
tices
In rural counties local j
neighbors,
the
offi
both
ny -wide reputation for d ciding cases expeditiously
pro
unced anti -creditor bases of many of the other
is
This
county courts.
ways in which the lega
responsive
were either public
a result of
themselves.
rather
Court' s
initiated
aw and chancery dockets were so crowded that
years to reach trial; and second, a major/
Lty of the justices
th
Mayor,
Hustings Court, members of the City Co potation:
Recorder,
which
reasons:
uits
common
while in more
sid' d with
ur: - nized
areas,
interests
merchants
of their planter
were
able
to
exercise
more influence.
4.
How did Virginia law and jam' ' ce reflect the institution of slave
s?
Because
a slave was
bo h
laws and judicial decisi.
slaves,
In
s,
a form o
in both c
property and a human being, Virginia
minal and civil proceedings involving
were more comp • x and different
criminal matters,
an
those
applicable
to white
freemen.
e. e for the most part settled by
the master; while s - ves accused of felony
re tried without a jury, a
cial Court of Oyer and Terminer
right claimed by w. to Virginians, before a s
usually
offense
ave
misdemeanors
comprised of senior justices of the pea
in the county where the
co
ed and executed,
the
tted, and if the slave was conde
was
Since slaves
master was coy„ - nsated for his loss of property by he colony.
d as valuable assets,
were property in civil litigation they were conside
and in Virg is after 1727 as chattels real rather tha as a form of
personalit„
or mere
chattels.
Because as property asse s slaves formed one
of the m.
chief -:
t liquid assets
sets
of a slaveholder,
of most planters,
a British Act
and with thei
slaves and real estate in the American colonies
sterling creditors without
a pre - existing
lands
of Parliament
the
1732
made
subject to the claims of
contract or mortgage\
On
the
other hand the Virginia courts ruled that as depreciating and perishable
assets,
slaves
could not
be entailed like
until the American Revolution,
other real estate;
and
from 1732
in order to favor local creditors and debtors,
Virginia several times tried by statute to have slaves declared personal
chattels
real in Virginia until after independence.
�This
Note:
represents
a revised Page 2,
2 issued December 11,
3.
1984,
Questions &
Answers.
The
Page
should be canceled.
Why did merchants and officials prefer to use the Hustings and
York County Courts instead of the General Court for their civil
cases?
Merchants and officials preferred to bring their suits in the
Williamsburg Hustings Court or the York County Court rather than the
General Court
for
first,
two reasons:
after 1740 the General Court' s
common law and chancery dockets were so crowded that suits initiated
there took years to reach trial; and second, a majority of the justices
Mayor,
or for the Hustings Court, members of the City Corporation:
Recorder,
and Aldermen)
were
either
public officials
or merchants
As a result of the interminable delays in the General Court,
themselves.
which was made up of the Governor and Council, most of whom were planters
rather
than merchants
initiated their
suits
or
officials,
merchants
in the Hustings
and
officials
usually
Court or the York CountyCourt,
both of which had a colony -wide reputation for deciding cases expeditiously
and without the pronounced anti creditor biases of many of the other
This de facto specialization of these two
county courts.
courts
represents ways in which the legal system of colonial Virginia became or
remained
responsive to the needs and wishes
In rural counties local justices
the colony.
their
planter
able to
4.
of powerful inhabitants of
neighbors,
exercise more
while
sided with interests of
in more urbanized
areas,
merchants were
influence.
How did Virginia law and justice reflect the institution of slavery
in both civil
and
criminal
proceedings?
Because a slave was both a form of property and a human being, Virginia
laws and judicial decisions,
involving slaves,
white
freemen.
in both criminal and civil proceedings
were more complex and different than those applicable to
In criminal matters,
slave misdemeanors were for the most
part settled by the master; while slaves accused of felony were tried
without a jury, a right claimed by white Virginians, before a special Court
of Oyer and Terminer usually comprised of senior justices of the peace in
the county where the offense was committed,
and executed,
colony.
and if the slave was condemned
the master was compensated for his loss of property by the
Since slaves were property, in civil litigation they were
considered as valuable assets,
and in Virginia after 1727 as chattels real
Because as property
rather than as a form of personalty, or mere chattels.
assets slaves formed one of the most liquid assets of a slaveholder, and
with their lands the chief assets of most planters, a British Act of
Parliament in 1732 made slaves and real estate in the American colonies
subject to
contract
or
the claims of sterling creditors without a pre- existing
On the other hand the Virginia courts ruled
mortgage.
that as depreciating and perishable assets,
like other real estate;
order to favor
slaves could not be entailed
and from 1732 until the American Revolution,
local creditors and debtors,
in
Virginia several times tried
Every such act was
disallowed in England and slaves remained chattels real in Virginia until
by statute to have slaves declared personal property.
after
independence.
J. H.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 5, 1984
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/47da35a760981eea4fbbd56b5bc09214.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=k9%7E5AwiOtv1bgw8g8YG669YVx5tuVyVQ04TRB841WAocHpjSm5EvNnQ7Pi7Vviw8hX0YN1KHsa45-tDKi6mc5OmsMdkL3KUE8NY2GdJxDUMlzC3DM34Ln41hfnX5NMieIYD9nBOpaPir4E0HVEFLbmYMznpdrF9FsTsoEzP-ETZ-cd7zO3Uk%7EaluyBEQKKoc5m4iO4CcR7AeodDLKDXed4VEW0Aw7g%7EqSWkUmGSFQk1gFKrLu0A23fVM8Sdz5oHtSyqUYO1CoS2oz0xwA7Ga93IKnuVdeU1ZRsT2%7E1VIV00OSI8gL2Be-9VWlFTWHE106OoNKttfcn0l3D1IU6y5Yw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
d6185556dce7c7d547db6c8d06ec3c47
PDF Text
Text
Answers
uestions
VOL.
4,
No.
February 1983
1
During the 1982 in- service training, we asked you to submit to the
Department of Interpretive
Education the questions
that Reginald Butler
and Rex Ellis did not have time to answer in class.
We asked Harold Gill
He was not able
in Research to help us find answers to these. questions.
to give a definite answer to many of the questions because they require
research
that has not yet been done.
authoritative responses
to questions
Often it is not
that
possible
deal with peoples'
to
give
private lives
Routine events and procedures were seldom
in the eighteenth century.
recorded.
This problem is even more acute for eighteenth- century blacks
than the population at large because documents in their own hands
practically non - existent.
information on black life
We hope to include in future
issues
are
n
Lm
cWD
CI
tX
ym
BLACK
current
in Colonial Virginia.
LIFE
1.
After leaving Africa did blacks have difficulty continuing to believe
in their many gods when their white masters in Virginia believed in just
one
god?
The assumptions that Africans believed in " many gods" may not be true.
It
However, I certainly don' t feel qualified to respond to this question.
will be referred to a scholar in the
2.
field.
Did many Virginia plantations become like " Tara"
century?
Tara"
represents
a romanticized version
of
in the nineteenth
Virginia
plantations.
plantations were working plantations and did not require large numbers of
Cotton is more labor intensive than tobacco.
slaves.
3.
Is there any evidence of a white man being hanged for the murder of
a black man in Colonial Virginia?
There is evidence that a white man could be executed for murdering a
black man.
However,
through
records
4.
the
at
to
this
cite
time I
a
am unable
specific
to find
the time
to look
example.
If blacks were forbidden to marry, how did white slave owners encourage
slaves
to procreate
outside
of marriage and not violate
their religious
principles?
I' m not sure they were forbidden to marry,
procreation would not violate
their master' s
and even if they were,
religious
principles
for
their
the
same reasons that the master' s insistence on liberty and freedom for himself
did not extend to slaves.
5.
IN
When was the law passed that forbade blacks from owning firearms and
their own property?
The act prohibiting blacks from owning firearms was passed in 1640.
There was no prohibition of slaves owning personal property and free blacks
could
own
real
estate.
Adam Waterford,
and house in Williamsburg,
a free black cooper,
owned a lot
for instance.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
COLNIA
VIRGNIA
�Were slave baptisms,
6.
weddings and funerals held for blacks living in
Williamsburg? Were they private affairs or did the slaves' master direct
them?
Slave children were routinely baptized in the eighteenth century.
Williamsburg, for example,
In
the baptisms of slaves are recorded in the Bruton
Parish Church register. I have no information about weddings and funerals of
slaves.
How much opportunity would a slave living in town have to rent out his
7.
services or have a small business such as raising chickens?
At this
time,
there is not information on
Did the College make an attempt
8.
then give
some
At this
9.
their
time,
to
this
subject.
train their slaves in a trade and
freedom?
there is not information on
this
subject.
From the incomplete evidence can it be estimated how frequently black
families were
Evidence
able
is
to live
together?
insufficient
to make a judgment.
10.
In olonial Virginia were female blacks predominately the head of the
family?
This question will be referred to a scholar specializing in black history.
11.
How did a slave buy his freedom?
From 1681 to 1782, he could not buy his freedom.
12.
When a black man was free, what laws allowed him to be a property owner
and how could he protect his rights and property?
The
same
laws protected him
that protected
everyone else.
Under what conditions could a slave keep money received for his services?
13.
This was probably at the discretion of his owner.
Were black wet nurses
14.
used often
there many black midwives?
They were often used, apparently,
have
found no
were
the
children of
a slave
owner?
Were
for the children of their masters.
How much
information
cook for many years?
she
to black midwives;
do we
however,
have about Lydia
I would doubt
Broadnax,
Did she have a family of her own,
who was Mr.
there
Wythe' s
and is it known where
lived?
George Wythe described Lydia Broadnax in his will
indicating that she was his former slave.
manumitted
Lydia.
and Benjamin,
of
that
I
none:
15.
references
for
Fifth
a-:
She and
two
other of Wythe' s
on Shockoe Hill.
his " freed woman"
former slaves,
lived with Wythe in his Richmond home on
Gi4ce streets
as
We do not know exactly when Wythe
There is
Michael
Brown
the southeast corner
no
information about Lydia' s
There is no indication that she ever maintained a separate
background or family.
residence during her service to Wythe as cook and housekeeper.
�16.
Most references I have seen to slaves used no surnames; yet at least two
of George Wythe' s, Lydia Broadnax and Michael Brown, had surnames.
What was
the
custom?
Also, the name Broadnax was a plantation family name.
Therefore,
could Lydia Broadnax have been of mixed blood?
That a slave had a surname is not at all an indication that he or she was
Since we do not know exactly when Lydia Broadnax and Michael
of " mixed blood."
Brown were freed by George Wythe, we cannot say for certain that they were
known by two names while- they -were slaves.
However, recent scholarship suggests
that more slaves than are commonly supposed had surnames while still in bondage.
Masters were frequently unaware that their slaves were using surnames, thus the
infrequent references to slave surnames in inventories and other documents.
Though slaves sometimes used the surname of their last owner, studies now show
that frequently they indicated at manumission their use of the surname of their
original owner or the surname of one of their parents who may have chosen the
name from their original owner.
Thus Lydia and Michael did not carry the " Wythe"
name but rather appear to have taken names of owners previous to Wythe or perhaps
from a parent.
There is no evidence that Lydia was formerly owned by any line
of the Broadnax family in Virginia, but it is certainly a possibility in light
of
17.
new studies
of
slave
names.
What were George Mason' s and Robert Carter III' s views on slavery?
George Mason relied on the labor of a large number of slaves for the
operation of a nearly self- sufficient tobacco plantation.
He also publicly
criticized the entire system of African slavery as he knew it in Virginia.
The paradox was not without its own significance.
Like many another Virginian
of his generation, Mason' s experience with slave labor made him hate slavery,
but his heavy investment in slave property made it difficult for him to divest
himself of a system that he despised.
He helped end the slave trade with his
nonimportation resolves and, later, by direct legislation." (
MacMaster, The Five George Masons . . ..,
p. 162.)
Robert Carter had extensive slaveholdings but in 1792,
Copeland
and
under the influence
of Swedenborgianism, began a program whereby he gradually manumitted his nearly
500
slaves.
His concern extended well beyond the legalities of manumission,
for letters between 1793 and 1803 show he tried to help his former slaves.
18.
Where was the first Baptist Church for blacks established in Williamsburg?
By 1818, and perhaps earlier, the First Baptist Church was meeting on
Colonial Lot M on the west side of Nassau Street near its intersection with
Francis Street.
Black preachers Gowan Pamphlet and Moses began speaking to
slaves and free blacks in the Williamsburg area about 1776.
The first meetings
were held in the open.
By 1791 the church had moved into Williamsburg and was
accepted by the Dover Association ( Baptist).
Church tradition has it that the
owner of Lot M allowed the congregation to meet in his carriage house.
Documentary evidence mentions the Baptist Meeting House on the lot by 1818.
A brick church was built there in 1855;
19.
it was torn down in the mid- 1950s.
When there was a runaway slave, did the county courts direct the sheriff
or other county officials to search for him,
or was it the individual master' s
responsibility to find him?
was
It was the master' s responsibility to find runaway slaves unless the slave
If he or she was outlawed, then a hue and cry was issued by the
outlawed.
county courts to all sheriffs in order to apprehend the slave.
�Were
20.
Did miscegenation
there legal sanctions against miscegenation?
occur often in Colonial Virginia ?..
The Virginia laws passed in 1705 ( and continued by 1755 laws) contained
A free
specific penalties relating to sexual relations between the races.
white woman or a white female servant having a bastard child by a Negro or
mulatto had to pay the parish where the child was born f15 current money of
Virginia, or, if unable to pay that sum, the mother could be sold by the
Churchwardens
service for the benefit of the parish.
And for a further
to bind the child to be a servant until age 31. "
parish for five years'
were
prevention of that abominable mixture and spurious issue,"
free white men or
women intermarrying with Negroes or mulattoes, whether bound or free, had to
serve six months in prison without bail and pay f10 current money for use of
the
parish.
at
this
Ministers were also fined if found' to have performed such a
Though mulattoes appear in the county records, we are unable to say
marriage.
time what
percentage
of
the
population
was
of mixed
parentage.
The
York County Records up to 1780 contain no references to trials for interracial
marriage.
Interpreters in the advanced sets have
asked about the rationale behind
the composition of the advanced sets.
We will conclude
how we selected the components found in these sets.
this issue by explaining
Some of the Advanced sets in the Core Curriculum program included two
Q.
courses that really were appealing, but the third course seemed less interesting.
Why were we restricted in making our choices?
The main reason
A.
that three courses were
scheduled
together in " sets"
was
Scheduling individual
courses for a completely elective system would mean coming to .a two -hour course
The
at one time, and waiting for a few hours or a day or so for other courses.
other alternative was to schedule each six -hour course for one day, including
the assessment exercises.
This seemed to us a fairly difficult arrangement for
So we decided to schedule three
both the interpreter and the faculty member.
courses each day.
We combined each of the eight Advanced courses with every other course that
The results give each interpreter
was possible in this Rubik' s Cube of scheduling.
the best opportunity to choose at least two courses in which he or she is most
to give each interpreter an opportunity to work full days.
interested,
with the third course
a pure elective system,
work
for
Note:
its
three
round
somehow related to the
but it does provide
trips
first two.
This
is
not
some selection and three full days'
to CWF.
The Preservation League of the College of William and Mary is holding
Second Annual
Conference on March 17th.
is The National Register of Historic Places .-
The subject of this year' s
Its Past,
Today,
conference
and Its Future.
Conference activities will be held on March 16th and 17th on the William and Mary
Campus.
Please look to your department bulletin boards for more information or
consult a member of
the Department of
Interpretive Education,
�Answers
Questions &
VOL.
4,
No.
April
2
1983
taxes.
The Research
It' s spring, and all men' s thoughts turn to. . .
Department provided the following timely bit of reading, an essay on taxation in the eighteenth- century Virginia.
C/)
rrn
we do,
real
Colonial Virginians paid several different kinds of taxes, just as
but there were then no income taxes and only occasional taxes on
estate
and
some personal
property.
The major tax assessments due from individuals were the parish,
Each of these levies was computed by dividing
county, and colony levies.
the jurisdiction' s total expenses by its number of tithables ( white males
Because taxes were assessed by
over 16 years old and all blacks over 16).
the poll ( per person),
owned many
the greatest burden of taxation fell on those who
slaves.
Parish levies were assessed by the vestrymen and paid for the construction and repair of churches,
and
the indigent,
clergy' s salaries,
and other welfare
related
assistance to orphans
expenses.
County taxes were determined by the justices of the county courts
for building courthouses, constructing bridges, maintaining ferries, paying
the expenses of burgesses and other public servants,
and so forth.
The amount of taxes due the colony was determined by the General
Assembly to pay all expenses approved by the House Committee on Claims.
Their expenditures included salaries of a few public officials,
the Capitol building, messengers'
other
fees,
repairs to
cost of recovering runaways,
and
disbursements.
Expenses of the City of Williamsburg were supposed to be covered by
the toll on goods sold at the bi- weekly markets,
taxes.
a tax not unlike our sales
When there was not sufficient income from this toll, the Common Hall
went before the General Assembly for permission to tax Williamsburg residents
In 1764, for example, a sum was collected for each tithable in town to buy
fire engines,
dig wells and attach pumps, hire firemen and night watchmen,
and repair streets and lanes in the city.
Tithe -takers ( county officials) determined the number of tithables
They posted their lists on the doors of the courthouse
These tithe lists were
and church during the month of June for correction.
in each household.
used for all the levies -- parish,
county,
and colony.
Each fall the county
court and parish vestry sat to determine the amounts due from each
Most levies were assessed in pounds of tobacco but could be paid
or cash. (
It was often advantageous to pay in cash,
because the official price of tobacco was sometimes lower than its market
tithable.
in
either
tobacco
value.)
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative. Education
�Parish and county levies ( along with the quitrents, discussed below)
were collected once a year by the county sheriffs and undersheriffs, who
The
received a percentage of the monies taken in for their trouble.
colony tax was collected less often, depending upon sessions and unusual
Most of their budget was met by the
expenses of the General Assembly. (
duties on liquors
and slaves.)
The amount due in taxes could vary greatly from year to year as
For example, if the parish
the expenses of each jurisdiction fluctuated.
bought a glebe or built a church, parish levies for that year would be
quite
The next year, however,
high.
there might be only the expenses of
maintaining needy parishioners and the clergy' s salary to pay,
and the
parish levy would be small.
All
Property owners paid quitrents, which were, in a way, taxes.
land in the colony was subject to a yearly " rent" payable by the occupants.
Quitrents amounted to a shilling for each fifty acres of land patented
and
This revenue paid salaries of the commissary, attorney and other officials, but the vast majority went to the crown.
occupied.
general,
Besides
liquors,
tax,
were
quitrents,
furs,
a
indirect taxes
and slaves.
major
source
Export
of
included occasional duties
duties
revenue.
The
on tobacco,
costs
on
another indirect
of Virginia' s
central
government -- including the salary of the governor,
payments to a few
other
the Palace - were met
full time officials,
and the maintenance of
by the export duty of two shillings on each hogshead of tobacco sent out
of the colony.
Only those who shipped tobacco out of the colony paid this
tax.
In addition to this impost, a Plantation Duty of a penny a pound was
After 1692, the proceeds
charged on tobacco sent to another English colony.
from the Plantation Duty were directed to the support of the College of
William and Mary.
Historians haven' t yet
reached a
consensus,
but
some
think
that
colony Virginians were lightly taxed, paying about 5 percent of their
yearly worth in taxes, compared to up to 50 percent that we pay today.
And rumors to the contrary, in eighteenth- century Virginia there
were no taxes on closets, two - story houses, hearths, large pieces of glass,
or large looking glasses. -
In planning future themes for Questions & Answers we are
considering an issue where the interpreters share with us interesting
stories or remarks made by our visitor.
We' re most
interested
in stories
that place the visitor in a humorously ironic ( rather than derogatory) light.
For example:
Two visitors overheard on the Jamestown /Surry ferry. "
responds the
you been to that town called Williamsburg yet ?" " No,"
Well
its
200 years
remarkable,"
old."
said the first visitor. "
If you like
this
idea,
your stories or remarks to Jane Strauss,
please
The
let
place
us hear
looks
Have
other;
like
from you.
it' s
Send
Group Arrivals Building.
Erratum:
We wish to thank our readers for pointing out to us that Q. No.
February issue Vol.
principles,
principles.
4,
No.
referred not
to
1 was not clear.
the
slaves,
but
The
to
reference
the owners
to
their
religious
4 in the
religious
�Questions
Answers
This is a special issue of Questions and Answers that will help
prepare you for the 1983
Summit of Industrialized Nations to be held
30, 1983.
in Colonial Williamsburg May 28 -
The
1983
Summit
of
Industrialized Nations will address
and problems that influence the economy of our modern world.
yourselves
as
interpreters
for
the members
of
the world
the
To
challanges
prepare
press we wish
to give you a short bibliography and some reading material that will
help you answer some of the questions that the members of the press may
have on the Virginia Colonial economy.
In addition to the attached articles,
following.
What
did
it
cost?
The Interpreter,
The Lingo of Virginia' s Economy.
The Economic Role of Williamsburg.
you may wish to read the
Vol.
1,
No.
1
Peter Bergstrom
James
Economic Behavior in a Planting Society:
Chesapeake:
Aubrey C. Land.
Soltow
The Eighteenth- Century
These articles appeared in the reading materials for the Basic
Courses
of
the
1983' s
Core Curriculum.
If
you wish
to read
these
articles they can be checked out from the training library in Norton Cole House or if you have misplaced your copy of the Interpreter, Vol. 1,
No. 1 please call Nancy Wooten, Ext. 2448, at the Norton -Cole House and
she will
give you a
copy.
A Bi- monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�THE COLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG
re er
In er
JULY 1980
VOL. 1 NO. 1
What Did It Cost?
The problems are many, but there is a
solution through comparison of prices in the
same era. For example, in the 1740s and ' 50s,
Many' s the interpreter who's been put on the
spot when a visitor asked the modern equiva-
lent of a colonial price. The conversion of
money values from 1750 to 1980 is almost
economic historians shy away from direct
two dozen sheets of writing paper cost about
the same as a pound of double refined sugar
or dinner and a night' s lodging at a Williams-
conversions. The best way for any of us to
burg tavern ( one shilling sixpence), and only
handle this question is to hint at the com-
a few pence more than a quart of rum ( one
plexities involved and then compare prices of
shilling threepence). Keep in mind that in
a few eighteenth- century goods.
Virginia during this period craftsmen like
impossible; even the most highly qualified
blacksmiths
Giving an up -to -date dollar amount equal
to a colonial pound just isn' t feasible. The
dollar value of a pound sterling today varies
greatly from what it was even twenty years
ago. Consider the difference in buying power
between a dollar now and a dollar only five
and
carpenters
earned
seven
shillings sixpence a day, for an annual income
of about £ 100.
For prices relevant to your area, consult
craft reports, house histories, and interpre-
tive manuals. Harold Gill' s essay, " Prices
years ago. We have a sense of the change, but
and Wages in 1750" ( September 29, 1977),
which of us can assign a value?
may also be useful. You' ll find it among your
in- service training materials from last winter.
The essay puts prices in the context of
earnings and cost of living and also includes
retail prices of some widely available items.
Some of us vividly remember 1940. Here' s
an example from a family budget in those
days: about a fourth of the family' s income
paid for its shelter ( rent or mortgage plus
utilities). Today as much as 35 or 40 percent
of ourconsiderably higher incomes is required
to cover housing costs. This degree of change
The Interpreter
came about in only forty years, so imagine
240 years' difference!
The Interpreter, a bimonthly publication of the
Stop to contemplate how dramatically life
Department of Interpretive Education, will
has changed since the eighteenth century.
include information of importance and inter-
One
wooden world ": wood for building, wood
fires for heating and cooking, wooden ships.
est to the entire community of interpreters at
Colonial Williamsburg. .
Our community is diverse. It consists of
The list goes on. All this seems light years
Craftspeople, Escorts, Hosts and Hostesses,
historian calls the colonial
milieu " a
away from our steel, concrete, and aluminum
the Company ofColonial Performers, Visitors'
structures, our electricity and atomic energy.
What we now con-
Aides, Desk Attendants, and others in Historic Area Services. Our staff is also large. We
number 350 in the slower seasons and swell
sider necessities of life — electric stoves and
to over 500 during the summer months. This
refrigerators, central heating, gasoline -powered vehicles, and factory- made clothing —
makes us the largest interpretive staff of any
museum in the country.
Our value system, too, is very different from
our colonial ancestors'.
Although we are
were unthinkable even a hundred years ago
diverse and large,
The
Interpreter will attempt to identify and underscore all we have in common. What are some
and certainly were so in the eighteenth
century.
of these similarities? The answers are obvious.
Converting colonial prices to modern money is, as your grade school teacher would
probably put it, like comparing apples and
Through our appearances, actions, and words,
we work diligently to interpret the historical
continued, p. 3)
oranges.
1
�The Lingo of Virginia' s Colonial Economy
by
Peter V.
Bergstrom
Research Department
The cryptic terminology of colonial merchants is as confusing to
Much of the mystery can be cleared
many interpreters as it is to our visitors.
gip, however, by starting with a simple outline of the Virginia economy- - how
the planters sold their crops and purchased the manufactured goods they desired from Europe - -and by reference to a basic glossary of eighteenth- century
economic
terms.
Virginians who made their living by raising tobacco could either
sell their produce to English merchants via a system of trade known as con-
signment marketing, or they could deal locally with a colonial merchant which
was called direct purchase marketing.
In
the first
case,
the planter " con-
signed" his goods to an English merchant, who acted as his agent in arranging
for the sale of the planter' s tobacco in England,
and the purchase and ship-
ment back to Virginia of the goods that the planter ordered.
The
scene in
The Patriot, in which John Fry and his family are unpacking goods from England,
offers
an
example of
this
system.
In consignment marketing there was no
middle -man" and the planter gained the greatest share of the profits, but
he also bore the greatest share of the risk.
He held title to his crop until
it was actually sold in England, which meant that if the ship taking his
tobacco to England sank, or was captured in a war or by pirates, it was the
planter who suffered the loss.
Likewise,
if the price of tobacco fell
suddenly in Europe, which it often did in years of large harvests, it was
the
planter
who
suffered.
In the second case,
that of direct purchase marketing, the planter
�sold his crop outright to a merchant in Virginia.
The price he received
would probably be lower than if he consigned it to England,
but it would now
be the merchant' s worry to see the tobacco safely to England and to find a
purchaser
for
it.
A second advantage of direct purchase marketing was that
while the planter' s choice of manufactured
goods was
limited to what the
merchant had in stock, he could actually see the goods and judge their quality
1.-
e
u a .. •
f- ro he made his choice.
Moreover,
vlcvvcl,
by the 1 / JVS,
tl3C 1750_
many merchants were present
in Virginia which made competition among them brisk and the choice of goods
very
great.
Whichever system the planter used to sell his crops and acquire
his goods,
a number of additional elements were involved.
English sterling
coins could not legally be exported to the colonies, so coined money was
continually in short supply in Virginia.
lem in a number of ways.
First,
The colonials surmounted this prob-
they made extensive use of foreign coins- -
primarily Spanish and Portuguese coins gained by trading to the West Indies- whose values they periodically fixed by law. (
of
some
of
these coins.)
Second,
See the Glossary for the values
after the establishment of the tobacco
inspection system in 1730, they discovered that they could use tobacco notes
as a kind of currency -- although this never proved to be fully satisfactory
since the value of the notes depended on the price current of tobacco and
could vary between the
them
to
ically
someone
else.
time a person acquired the notes and chose to sell
Third,
after 1755,
the government of Virginia period-
issued paper currency which was similar to modern paper money.
Since
this paper currency was not backed by any metallic reserve, however, but only
by the colony' s promise to redeem it from the collections of future taxes,
paper currency was constantly subject to devaluation and / or inflation.
The
fourth and most common expedient the Virginians used instead of circulating
�money was some form of credit.
In general,
two kinds of credit were available to Virginians.
For
short term credit, planters went to their local merchants and were given book
credit
for
the purchase of
tools,
cloth,
etc.
This was secured by the planter' s
promise to pay back the merchant at harvest time from the proceeds of his next
crop.
Typically, this meant that the planter would negotiate a price for his
entire crop with the merchant ( a direct purchase sale) while the plants were
The merchant would then cancel the book debt
still growing in the fields.
and the remainder of
cash or
as
a
demand more
and
as he
credit
future
credit
cash and
chose.
and
the proceeds would be returned to
less
on
the merchant' s book.
less credit,
By contrast,
cash.
since he could
The
the planter either in
shrewd
planter
then spend the
would
cash where
the shrewd merchant would try to give more
Oftentimes,
the merchant might even offer a higher price
for the planter' s tobacco if the planter was willing to take his earnings as
a credit rather than in cash.
their goods
or
Scotland.
Merchants also employed the practice of selling
in the colonies at an advance over their prime cost
in England
The size of this mark -up was supposed to represent the merchant' s
expenses for freight,
insurance,
overhead charges,
and the like ( as well as
the current exchange between Virginia currency and sterling).
The advance
also included his profit margin, and considering that at least one Scottish
merchant wrote home suggesting that an advance of seventy -five percent was
common,
and one hundred percent not at all unusual,
must have been substantial.
Lest
this
should make
entirely heartless and grasping, however,
the merchant' s profits
the merchants appear
it should be pointed out that they
were giving the planters a minimum of one year' s credit without interest, and
that they had no absolute guarantee that the planter would continue to sell
his crops exclusively to them until the planter' s debt was cleared.
Bad debts
�might
any
account
for
as much
as
ten percent
of
the merchant' s
gross
sales
in
given year.
The second
source of credit was through a commercial house in Britain.
Any planter who used the consignment system to market his tobacco automatically
employed British credit as well,
for it was his agent who initially paid the
freighting costs, the English duties on the tobacco,
with marketing the crop in England. "
while
all
mately deducted from the planter' s profit,
the planter' s costs
the
gross
ever,
sale
was
for
price
of
a minimum of
the
tobacco.
the colonial merchant,
of
and the costs associated
these
charges were
ulti-
the English merchant had carried
a year
for
a
three
percent
commission
The major user of British credit,
for without British support,
on
how-
he would have
been unable to purchase goods in Britain for resale in America,
as well as
to extend his own credit to the planters while waiting to purchase their
tobacco
for
resale
in Britain.
British credits were transferred to the colonies and back by means
of bills of exchange.
These were negotiable instruments -- rather
like modern
checks - -by which a person with a sterling credit in Britain could transfer
all
or part
of
his credit
the writer of a check,
to
The drawer of the bill,
another person.
like
wrote an order to his creditor ( usually a British
mercantile firm that was acting like a bank) to pay the payee the amount
stated
in
the bill.
The payee
could then
take
the bill
to Britain,
it to the drawee ( the mercantile firm) and collect his due..
however,
present
More commonly,
the payee would endorse the bill over to another party - -hat is,
t
it and give it to someone to whom he owed money.
present
it
to
the payee
reached
the hands
of
or
endorse
the payee,
amount specified by the drawer,
it
once
he would,
again.
if
pay the debt.
That
person
in turn could
When the bill finally
he indeed had on deposit
If
sign
there were no
the
funds or credits
�on deposit with the payee, the last holder of the bill, like the person with
a bad check, was momentarily left in the lurch.
protested the bill of exchange,
to
be
from,
made
good.
and so on,
When the payee in such cases
it had to be taken back to the last endorser
He in turn had to complain to whomever he had received it
until it was returned to the original drawer.
The legal com-
plications could become quite involved, and two rules of thumb developed:
1) "
2)
Don' t accept a bill from someone whose credit you don' t trust ";
the obverse, "
Never endorse anyone else' s bills, notes,
and
or bonds."
Since not every Virginian --planter or merchant - -had sterling credit
readily available to him in Britain, a system developed in which those who
did have such credits available to them could sell them to those in Virginia
who
needed
from their
them.
Naturally, the sellers of bills sought to gain a profit
service.
Several factors surrounded this money market which influenced
the final cost of the sterling bills to their Virginia purchasers.
First, there was the rate of exchange between Virginia Current Money
and
sterling money.
From the 1630s,
the Virginia Assembly had tried ( with
little success) to attract foreign coinage into the colony by artifically
inflating its value above the official English exchange rate between sterling
coins
and
foreign coins.
Until 1727,
foreign coins made of silver were worth
about fifteen percent more in Virginia than they were valued in England.
After 1727, foreign coinage of both silver and gold was valued at twenty five percent
above the English rate.
Because foreign coins were the basic
monetary unit in circulation in Virginia, all current money whether it was
in coin, or after 1755 in paper currency, was related to sterling money by
this
exchange
rate.
When the rate held at £ 125 Virginia current equal to
100 sterling, the exchange was said to be at. par.
In the course of daily events, however,
a second factor impinged
�upon the Virginia money market which decreed that the exchange rate rarely
7Th
be at par, for those who had sterling credits to sell believed that they
deserved a profit over and above the official exchange rate.
perceived
that
some purchasers could give
them better values
Moreover,
they
in Virginia
current money or in goods for their bills of exchange than others might.
Hence, when the supply of sterling credits was greater than the demand for
them in Virginia,
only
rarely.
the exchange rate might
fall below par -- though this happened
More likely, the demand for sterling credit would be greater
than the seller' s ability to provide bills,
and the rate would rise above par.
GLOSSARY OF ECONOMIC
TERMS
COMMON
TERMS
IN THE MARKET PLACE
Consignment marketing.
A method of selling one' s crops in which the planter
dealt directly with his agent /merchant in England.
The merchant
money to cover the cost of the freight,
and the actual sale of the
crop in England,
the duties,
and then deducted these,
the
plus a commission of 21 to 3 per-
cent from the gross amount of money generated by the sale.
therefore,
advanced
The merchant,
took his commission not only on the sale price of the crop, but
also on all the money he advanced to cover the planter' s expenses.
planter kept title to his crop until it was finally sold in England,
Since the
the loss
that might be incurred from damage at sea or a drop in the market price was
his and not the merchant' s.
Direct purchase marketing.
A method of, selling one' s crops in which the
planter sold his produce directly to a merchant in Virginia.
would receive for his crop would be less,
The price he
but he would then bear none of the
risks or the headaches involved in getting his crop sold in England.
The
�planter also had the advantage of having his money immediately, rather than
having to wait one,
or perhaps two years to complete a sale as he might have
to do with consignment marketing.
Book credit or book debt.
tained upon the
account
The amount of credit or debt that the planter main-
books
of his
local
merchant
which was chronically short of circulating coinage,
book credit,
in
Virginia.
In a society
the ability to command
and even to transfer it from one customer to another was
essential to the smooth functioning of everyday business.
Prime
cost.
The cost of
goods to a Virginia merchant when he purchased them
in England from his English supplier.
sale price,
In a
sense this was
similar
to a whole-
except that many smaller Virginia merchants were forced to purchase
their goods retail from other merchants in England,
rather than actually secur-
ing them wholesale from the manufacturers.
Advance.
The mark -up on the first cost which the Virginia merchant applied
to his goods before reselling them in the colony.
one hundred percent or more of the prime cost.
This ranged from fifty to
Also,
it was not uncommon
for a merchant to apply a different rate of advance upon the sales of his
various customers,
Price current.
depending upon their credit status.
The day to day price for which a commodity could be bought
or sold in the colony.
This price usually represented the consensus view of
the merchants as to what a commodity was worth at any given time.
In Phila-
delphia and Boston these prices were published on a weekly basis in the newspapers. .
the
Virginia' s merchants never reached that level of sophistication during
colonial
tion ( c.
period.
1750- 1775),
But during the last twenty -five years before the Revolumany Virginia merchants -- especially those in the Northern
Neck region -- accepted Philadelphia price currents as Virginia price currents
as
well.
�MONEY TERMS
Specie.
Any type of coined metallic money.
were Spanish silver reales ( dollars),
Moeadas ( Moidors),
and Portuguese
The most
common types
Spanish gold Pistoles,
in Virginia
Portuguese gold
gold Dobras ( Joes and Half -Joes).
Few
English sterling coins actually circulated in Virginia.
Coin values.
English coins,
in whose denominations Virginians figured their
accounts ( ev.o.n though they rarely had Engli h coins),
were of the following
values:
4
Farthings =
1 penny ( pence abbreviated as " d ")
12 Pence =
1 shilling ( abbreviated as " s ")
20 Shillings =
1 pound ( abbreviated as "£ ")
21 Shillings =
1
Exchange.
equal
guinea
The rate at which a given amount of one coinage was said to be
to
a certain amount
of
another
coinage.
In Virginia as in England,
the
rate of exchange was based upon the weight in troy ounces of the silver or
gold content
of the
foreign coins.
Hence,
to determine the value of foreign
coins which were often defaced and mutilated from hard use,
Virginians had
to weigh them and multiply the number of ounces of gold or silver by the
exchange
rate.
To encourage the retention of foreign coins within the colony,
the Virginia Assembly increased the official English exchange rate by twenty five percent.
Virginia Current Money.
kept their accounts.
and pence,
The money or units of measure in which Virginians
This was figured and stated in terms of pounds,
shillings,
but since actual exchange occurred in foreign coins or bills of
exchange, Virginia current values had to be converted to sterling values by
an exchange
rate.
Although this rate was officially set at twenty -five per-
cent so that £ 125 Virginia Current Money equalled £ 100 sterling money, the
�unofficial rate charged by those with sterling bills of exchange to sell could
force the actual day to day rate well above par.
Par.
The point at which the official rate of exchange equalled the actual
rate charged by the sellers of sterling bills.
From 1727 until the Revolution,
par was £ 125 Virginia Current to £ 100 sterling.
Bills of exchange.
The financial instrument by which sterling credits were
actually moved back and forth from England to Virginia.
In practice,
though
not in legal technicality, a bill of exchange functioned like a modern check.
In practice,
it involved three parties.
Drawer.
The person who has a sterling credit in Britain,
and who writes the order assigning all or part of this credit
to the payer ( the person writing the check).
Drawee.
The person or firm in Britain which holds the sterling
credit on its books,
Payee.
The person who will receive the credit in England ( the
person to
Protest.
and to whom the bill is addressed ( the bank).
whom the
check was written).
The refusal of the drawee to pay the bill of exchange -- presumably
on the grounds of insufficient funds or credits on deposit to cover the face
value
of . the bill.
Paper currency.
As a war measure,
beginning in 1755,
Virginia issued a series
of paper bills or notes which were to pass a legal tender for most ( but not
all)
public
and
private
debts.
At first merchants accepted paper for sterling
debts at the going rate of exchange, but soon discovered that they thereby
lost money when the exchange continued to rise faster than they could use their
notes to buy bills of exchange to send to Britain.
In 1764 Parliament responded
to the growing mercantile pressure with a law which forbid the colonies from
making paper money legal tender for private sterling debts and protected the
�10-
merchants from having to accept such paper unless they willingly chose to
do
In spite of these strictures,
so.
a limited amount of paper money continued
to be used in Virginia for both public and private transactions until the
Revolution.
Tobacco
After the passage of tobacco inspection legislation in 1730,
notes.
all good tobacco was to be lodged in public warehouses while it awaited ship t
to
The warehouse receipts;
EnglnnA
or notes,
were allowed to pass as
an impromptu currency in the sense that they could be transferred from one
person to another,
until their final holder redeemed them at the warehouse
for the specific amount of tobacco specified on the face of the note.
They
were not successful as a currency since they had no intrinsic or fixed value.
Rather they represented whatever that amount of tobacco might be worth at the
price current, on any given day.
Hence,
to accept a tobacco note was in a
sense a bit of speculation because one hoped the value of tobacco would rise
rather than fall between the time of acceptance and redemption or transfer of
the
note.
Inflation or devaluation.
The two parallel economic processes by which the
absolute value of a given amount of money loses purchasing power over a given
period
of
time.
practice when
the
Money is devalued either by official decree or unofficial
same amount buys
less.
Prices are inflated
insist upon charging more for the same item.
when sellers
�84L
Questions
Answers
PAMPHLET FILE
This is a special issue of Questions and Answers that will help
prepare you for the 1983 Summit of Industrialized Nations to be held
in
Williamsburg May 28 -
Colonial
30,
EtC
1983.
o
RECORI
COPY
tit
The 1983
and
problems
yourselves
Summit
that
as
of
Industrialized Nations will address
influence
interpreters
the
for
of
economy
the members
our
of
modern
the world
To prepare
press we wish
to give you a short bibliography and some reading material that will
help you answer some of the questions that the members of the press may
have on the Virginia Colonial economy.
In
addition
to
the
attached
articles,
you may wish to read the
following.
it
did
What
The
Lingo
The
Economic
of
Interpreter,
The
cost?
Virginia'
s
Peter
Economy.
of
Williamsburg.
Behavior
Economic
Role
in
a
Chesapeake.
Aubrey
1
No.
Bergstrom
James
Planting Society:
C.
1,
Vol.
Soltow
The Eighteenth- Century
Land.
These articles appeared in the reading materials for the Basic
Courses
of
the
1983'
s
Curriculum.
Core
If
you wish
to
read
these
articles they can be checked out from the training library in NortonHouse
Cole
No.
1
please
she will
A
or
give
Bi- monthly
if
call
you
you
have
Nancy
a
misplaced
Wooten,
Ext.
your
copy
2448,
at
of
the
Interpreter,
Vol.
the Norton- Cole House
copy.
Publication
of
the
Department
of
Interpretive
Education
and
p,
ea
the challanges
world.
10,4,
1,
�THE COLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG
interpreter
JU IN 1980
VOL. I NO. I
What Did It Cost?
Many' s
interpreter
the
been
who' s
The problems are many, but there is a
put on the
solution through comparison of prices in the
same era. For example, in the 1740s and' 50s,
spot when a visitor asked the modern equiva-
lent
The
price.
colonial
of a
of
conversion
almost
money values from 1750 to 1980 is
impossible; even the most highly qualified
two dozen sheets of writing paper cost about
the same as a pound of double refined sugar
shy away from direct
best way for any of us to
The
question is to hint at the com-
or dinner and a night' s lodging at a Williams-
historians
economic
conversions.
handle
this
involved
plexities
a
few
eighteenth-
Giving
to
just isn'
pound
colonial
a
blacksmiths
equal
amount
feasible. The
t
a
dollar
We have
years ago.
of us
which
Some
can
of us
example
an
days:
about
for its
paid
now
from
1940. Here'
budget in
family
a
fourth
a
tive
and
remember
these
plus
mortgage
or
rent
shelter (
utilities). Today as much as 35 or 40 percent
of our considerably higher incomes is required
to cover housing costs. This degree of change
240
in only forty
difference!
years'
Stop
has
fires for
heating
away from
structures,
and
our steel,
our
Our
value
our
colonial
this
sider necessities
refrigerators,
of
central
ered
vehicles,
were
unthinkable
and
"
wood
wooden
ships.
light- years
Craftspeople, Escorts, Hosts and Hostesses,
and aluminum
the Company of Colonial Performers, Visitors'
seems
Aides, Desk Attendants, and others in Histonic Area Services. Our staff is also large. We
atomic
so
number 350 in the slower seasons and swell
and
to over 500 during the summer months. This
makes us the largest interpretive staff of any
now
we
electric stoves
factorya
con-
gasoline- pow-
What
heating,
even
were
certainly
est to the entire community of interpreters at
Colonial Williamsburg.
Our community is diverse. It consists of
milieu
building,
and
life—
made
in
museum in the country.
clothing—
hundred
years
Although
ago
ey
is,
as
probably
colonial
your
put
grade
prices to
school
we
are
diverse
and
large,
The
eighteenth
Interpreter will attempt to identify and under-
modern mon-
score all we have in common. What are some
of these similarities? The answers are obvious.
the
century.
Converting
essay, " Prices
include information of importance and inter-
concrete,
ancestors'.
Gill' s
The Interpreter
imagine
energy.
too, is very different from
system,
Harold
a
for
electricity
manuals.
Wages in 1750" ( September 29, 1977),
century.
cooking,
All
on.
goes
100.
Department of Interpretive Education, will
colonial
wood
world":
seven
dramatically life
eighteenth
the
calls
wooden
The list
the
since
changed
so
earned
The Interpreter, a bimonthly publication of the
how
to contemplate
One historian
and
years,
about
came
carpenters
may also be useful. You' ll find it among your
in- service training materials from last winter.
The essay puts prices in the context of
earnings and cost of living and also includes
retail prices of some widely available items.
s
income
family' s
of the
and
craft reports, house histories, and interpre-
value?
a
assign
and only
For prices relevant to your area, consult
but
a sense of the change,
vividly
of about £
dollar only five
a
and
sixpence),
shillings sixpence a day. for an annual income
dollar value of a pound sterling today varies
years
greatly from what it was even twenty
Consider the difference in buying power
ago.
between
shilling
shilling
goods.
century
tavern ( one
threepence).
Keep in mind that in
Virginia during this period craftsmen like
and then compare prices of
up- to- date dollar
an
burg
a few pence more than a quart of rum ( one
teacher
it, like comparing
would
Through our appearances, actions, and words,
and
we work diligently to interpret the historical
apples
continued, p. 3)
oranges.
1
�The Lino of Virginians Colonial Econom
by
Peter
V.
Bergstrom
Research Department
The cryptic terminology of colonial merchants is as confusing to
interpreters
many
by
however,
up,
it
as
is
to
our
outline
simple
a
with
starting
Much of the mystery can be cleared
visitors.
of
the
Virginia
economy-- how
the planters sold their crops and purchased the manufactured goods they desired
economic
and by reference to a basic glossary of eighteenth- century
Europe--
from
terms.
Virginians who made their living by raising tobacco could either
sell their produce to English merchants via a system of trade known as con-
direct
called
was
signed"
his
for
sale
the
ment
back
offers
to
of
also
it
was
planter
who
in
planter
English
planter'
the
of
of
this
and
the
the
greatest
actually
to
an
In
marketing.
goods
case,
and
England,
in
the
that
first
the
planter
" con-
who acted as his agent in arranging
merchant,
tobacco
s
the
the
purchase
ordered.
planter
The
and
ship-
scene in
in which John Fry and his family are unpacking goods from England,
bore
tobacco
the
the
example
an
suddenly
to
Virginia
middle- man"
he
purchase
goods
Patriot,
The
or they could deal locally with a colonial merchant which
marketing,
signment
sold
England
Europe,
In
gained
of
share
England,
sank,
suffered
who
planter
in
the
which
In consignment marketing there was no
system.
or
was
loss.
it
the
the
share
greatest
of
the
but
profits,
He held title to his crop until
risk.
which meant that if the ship taking his
captured
Likewise,
often
did
in
in
a
war
or
by
pirates,
it
was
the
if the price of tobacco fell
years
of
large
harvests,
it
was
suffered.
the
second
case,
that
of
direct
purchase
marketing,
the
planter
�2his
sold
would
to
outright
crop
be
probably
lower
a
in Virginia.
merchant
if
than
he
consigned
it
The price he
England,
to
received
it
but
would
now
be the merchant' s worry to see the tobacco safely to England and to find a
purchaser
for
while
planter' s
the
had
merchant
before
he
it.
in
A second advantage of direct purchase marketing was that
goods was
limited
to what
the
he could actually see the goods and judge their quality
stock,
his
made
choice of manufactured
Moreover,
choice.
by
the
1750s,
many merchants
were
present
in Virginia which made competition among them brisk and the choice of goods
very
great.
Whichever system the planter used to sell his crops and acquire
his
goods,
coins
a
could
in
a
legally
not
in
continually
lem
number of additional
short
of
number
be
to
exported
First,
were
the
in Virginia.
supply
ways.
elements
involved.
colonies,
so
The colonials
English sterling
coined money
surmounted
was
this prob-
they made extensive use of foreign coins--
primarily Spanish and Portuguese coins gained by trading to the West Indies-whose
of
values
some
of
inspection
as
a
kind
they periodically
these
of
Second,
coins.)
system
in
1730,
currency--
fixed
law.
by
after
the
(
See the Glossary for the values
establishment
of
the
tobacco
they discovered that they could use tobacco notes
although this never proved to be fully satisfactory
since the value of the notes depended on the price current of tobacco and
could
them
vary
to
ically
this
between
someone
issued
paper
the
Third,
else.
paper
currency
time a person acquired the notes and chose
currency
was
not
after
1755,
which
was
backed
by
the government
similar
any
to
metallic
modern
to
sell
of Virginia periodpaper
reserve,
money.
however,
Since
but only
by the colony' s promise to redeem it from the collections of future taxes,
paper
fourth
currency
and
most
was
constantly
common
subject
expedient
the
to
devaluation
Virginians
used
and/
or
instead
inflation.
of
The
circulating
�3-
money was some form of credit.
In
term
short
the
of
available
were
credit
Virginians.
to
For
planters went to their local merchants and were given book
credit,
for
credit
kinds
two
general,
purchase
tools,
of
This was secured by the planter' s
etc.
cloth,
promise to pay back the merchant at harvest time from the proceeds of his next
crop.
entire
crop
this meant that the planter would negotiate a price for his
Typically,
still
with
the
merchant
in
the
fields.
growing
( a
direct
while
sale)
purchase
the
plants
were
The merchant would then cancel the book debt
and the remainder of the proceeds would be returned to the planter either in
cash
or
demand
more
and
he
as
credit
future
a
as
and
cash
By
chose.
less
and
credit
less
the
on
s
since
credit,
could
then
shrewd
spend
planter
the
would
cash where
the shrewd merchant would try to give more
contrast,
the merchant might
Oftentimes,
cash.
he
The
book.
merchant'
even offer a higher price
for the planter' s tobacco if the planter was willing to take his earnings as
a
rather
credit
than
in
Merchants
cash.
also
employed
the practice of
selling
their goods in the colonies at an advance over their prime cost in England
or
The size of this mark- up was supposed to represent the merchant' s
Scotland.
the
also
current
insurance,
freight,
for
expenses
exchange
included
his
between
profit
overhead
Virginia
and
charges,
and
currency
the
like
sterling).
(as
well
as
The advance
and considering that at least one Scottish
margin,
merchant wrote home suggesting that an advance of seventy- five percent was
common,
must
and
have been
entirely
were
one
hundred
the
and
grasping,
planters
a
not
Lest
substantial.
heartless
giving
percent
all
at
this
should
however,
minimum
of
unusual,
one
it
make
the
the
merchant'
merchants
s
profits
appear
should be pointed out that they
year'
s
credit
without
interest,
and
that they had no absolute guarantee that the planter would continue to sell
his
crops
exclusively
to
them
until
the
planter'
s
debt
was
cleared.
Bad
debts
�4-
might account for as much as ten percent of the merchant' s gross sales in
any
given year.
The second source of credit was through a commercial house in Britain.
Any planter who used the consignment system to market his tobacco automatically
British
employed
freighting
with
the
from
deducted
mately
duties
the
While
planter'
profit,
s
and
tobacco,
the
on
England.
in
crop
for it was his agent who initially paid the
well,
English
the
costs,
marketing
as
credit
all
of
these
the
costs
charges
associated
were
ulti-
the English merchant had carried
the planter' s costs for a minimum of a year for a three percent commission on
the
been
the
was
ever,
to
unable
for
merchant,
colonial
for
British
resale
British
of
user
major
without
Britain
in
goods
purchase
The
tobacco.
the
of
price
sale
gross
support,
how-
he would have
America,
in
credit,
as
well
as
to extend his own credit to the planters while waiting to purchase their
tobacco for resale in Britain.
British credits were transferred to the colonies and back by means
of
bills of
or
the
writer
firm
to
it
drawee (
the
however,
and
the
give
present
it
reached
the
amount
that
instruments-- rather
to
to
the
hands
specified
payee
to
payee
by
the
the
or
like
modern
take
the
collect
to
over
he
owed
money.
he
pay
it
once
would,
the
(
the
of
bill,
again.
usually a British
bill
his
due.
another
That
Britain,
to
present
More commonly,
party-- that
person
in
If
is,
sign
turn could
When the bill finally
if he indeed had on deposit
debt.
like
to pay the payee the amount
bill
endorse
drawer,
and
drawer
creditor
the
whom
payee,
then
firm)
endorse
someone
bank)
a
could
mercantile
would
of
like
acting
his
to
order
an
The
the
payee
it
wrote
The
person.
another
was
bill.
the
to
credit
check,
a
of
mercantile
in
his
of
part
all
it
negotiable
were
by which a person with a sterling credit in Britain could transfer
checks--
stated
These
exchange.
there
were
no
funds
the
or
credits
�5deposit
on
bad
a
check,
to
be
made
from,
plications
the
on,
of
in
of
lurch.
the
bill,
the
like the person with
When the payee
in such cases
it had to be taken back to the last endorser
exchange,
it
until
become
accept
obverse,
a
bill
involved,
from
someone
endorse
him
to
in
to
returned
anyone
Britain,
the
and
whose
every Virginian--
not
available
was
quite
Never
"
Since
readily
left
holder
He in turn had to complain to whomever he had received it
could
Don' t
2)
bill
last
the
payee,
momentarily
good.
so
and
1) "
was
the
protested
the
with
original
two
rules of
credit
else' s
planter
drawer.
you
bills,
or
The
legal
com-
thumb developed:
don' t
notes,
merchant--
trust";
and
or bonds."
had sterling credit
a system developed in which those who
did have such credits available to them could sell them to those in Virginia
who
from
Naturally,
them.
needed
their
the sellers of bills sought to gain a profit
Several factors surrounded this money market which influenced
service.
the final cost of the sterling bills to their Virginia purchasers.
First,
and
money.
sterling
little
there was the rate of exchange between Virginia Current Money
From
1630s,
the
the
Virginia
Assembly
had
tried
(with
to attract foreign coinage into the colony by artifically
success)
inflating its value above the official English exchange rate between sterling
coins
and
foreign
Until
coins.
1727,
foreign coins made of silver were worth
about fifteen percent more in Virginia than they were valued in England.
After
five
1727,
foreign coinage of both silver and gold was valued at twenty-
monetary
unit
in
or
coin,
this
100
the
above
percent
in
after
exchange
sterling,
In
English
circulation
1755
rate.
in
When
course
of
currency,
rate
the exchange was
the
Because foreign coins were the basic
in Virginia,
paper
the
rate.
held
said
daily
to
at
all current money whether it was
was related to sterling money by
125 Virginia current equal to
£
be at
events,
par.
however,
a
second
factor
impinged
�5-
upon the Virginia money market which decreed that the exchange rate rarely
be
for those who had sterling credits to sell believed that they
at par,
deserved
a
profit
over
and
above
the
official
exchange
Moreover,
rate.
they
perceived that some purchasers could give them better values in Virginia
current money or in goods for their bills of exchange than others might.
when the supply of sterling credits was greater than the demand for
Hence,
Virginia,
them
in
only
rarely.
than
the
the
More
seller'
s
exchange
rate
COMMON
IN
below par-- though
fall
this
happened
the demand for sterling credit would be greater
likely,
to
ability
THE MARKET
bills,
provide
GLOSSARY
TERMS
might
OF
and
ECONOMIC
the
rate
would
rise
above
par.
TERMS
PLACE
Consignment marketing.
A method of selling one' s crops in which the planter
dealt
directly
with
agent/ merchant
money
to
the
cover
England,
crop
in
cent
from
the
therefore,
all
on
also
the
kept
planter
cost
his
deducted
of
amount
to
he
not
his
crop
the
and
duties,
merchant
the
by
the
actual
sale
sale
cover
the
planter'
was
finally
price
s
sold
the
of
the
3 per-
The merchant,
sale.
the
it
advanced
plus a commission of 21 to
on
only
until
The
England.
generated
to
advanced
in
these,
money
commission
money
title
freight,
the
of
then
and
gross
took
his
of
the
expenses.
in
but
crop,
England,
Since
the
the
loss
that might be incurred from damage at sea or a drop in the market price was
his
and
Direct
not
the merchant' s.
purchase
planter
sold
would
receive
risks
or
the
marketing.
his
for
produce
his
headaches
A method of selling one' s crops in which the
directly
crop
would
involved
to
a
merchant
be less,
in
getting
in
Virginia.
but he would
his
crop
The price
he
then bear none of
sold
in
England.
The
the
�7-
planter
to
having
had
also
wait
the
advantage
his money
having
of
immediately,
rather
than
or perhaps two years to complete a sale as he might have
one,
to do with consignment marketing.
Book
credit
tained
which
book
the
upon
was
book debt.
or
and even
credit,
books
account
chronically
The amount
short
to
of
of
of credit or debt
merchant
circulating
transfer
it
in
coinage,
local
his
that the planter main-
the ability to command
from one customer
Virginia.
to
In a society
another was
essential to the smooth functioning of everyday business.
Prime
from his
England
in
The cost of goods to a Virginia merchant when he purchased them
cost.
their
In
supplier.
a
sense
this
was
similar
to
a whole-
except that many smaller Virginia merchants were forced to purchase
price,
sale
English
goods
from
retail
other
merchants
in
England,
rather
than actually secur-
ing them wholesale from the manufacturers.
Advance.
his
to
The mark- up on the first cost which the Virginia merchant applied
hundred
one
before
goods
reselling
percent
or
more
of
them
the
in
the
prime
colony.
cost.
This ranged from fifty to
Also,
it
was
not
uncommon
for a merchant to apply a different rate of advance upon the sales of his
various
Price
or
in
the
merchants
depending upon their credit status.
The day to day price for which a commodity could be bought
current.
sold
the
customers,
This price usually represented the consensus view of
colony.
as
to
what
a
commodity
was
worth
at
any
given
time.
In
Phila-
delphia and Boston these prices were published on a weekly basis in the newspapers.
the
Virginia' s merchants never reached that level of sophistication during
colonial
1750- 1775) ,
tion
( c.
Neck
region--
as
well.
period.
accepted
But during the last twenty- five years before the Revolumany
Virginia
merchants--
especially those in the Northern
Philadelphia price currents as Virginia price currents
�8-
MONEY TERMS
Specie.
Any
type
Spanish
were
of
silver
Moeadas ( Moidors) ,
coined
reales
and
metallic
(
dollars) ,
Portuguese
The most
money.
Spanish
Pistoles,
gold
Dobras ( Joes
gold
common
and
types
in Virginia
Portuguese
Half- Joes).
gold
Few
English sterling coins actually circulated in Virginia.
Coin values.
accounts
English
( even
in whose denominations Virginians
coins,
they rarely had
though
English
coins) ,
figured their
were of the following
values:
4
Farthings
=
1
penny (
1
shilling
12
Pence
20
Shillings
=
1
pound
21
Shillings
=
1
abbreviated
as
"
d")
guinea
Exchange.
equal
pence
(
(abbreviated
abbreviated
as
as
" s")
"£")
The rate at which a given amount of one coinage was said to be
to
a
certain
amount
of
another
coinage.
In
Virginia
as
in
England,
the
rate of exchange was based upon the weight in troy ounces of the silver or
gold
the
content
coins
of
which
were
foreign
often
coins.
defaced
and
Hence,
to determine the value of
mutilated
from hard
use,
foreign
Virginians
had
to weigh them and multiply the number of ounces of gold or silver by the
exchange
To encourage the retention of foreign coins within the colony,
rate.
the Virginia Assembly increased the official English exchange rate by twentyfive
percent.
Virginia
kept
and
their
but
so
The money or units of measure in which Virginians
This
was
figured
and
stated
in
terms
of
pounds,
shillings,
since actual exchange occurred in foreign coins or bills of
Virginia current values had to be converted to sterling values by
exchange
cent
Money.
accounts.
pence,
exchange,
an
Current
that
rate.
£125
Although this rate was officially set at twenty- five perVirginia
Current
Money
equalled
£ 100
sterling money,
the
�9-
unofficial rate charged by those with sterling bills of exchange to sell could
force the actual day to day rate well above par.
Far.
The point at which the official rate of exchange equalled the actual
rate
par
by
charged
was
£
125
the
sellers
Virginia
BiZZs of
exchange.
actually
moved
In
legal
in
not
Current
back
it
payer
Payee.
Protest.
The
value
of
the
paper
all)
a
debts
at
the
the
Revolution,
sterling.
from
a bill
England
of
to
exchange
Virginia.
In
functioned
like
though
practice,
a modern
check.
the order assigning all or part of
the person writing
this credit
the check).
books,
person
whom
the
the
of
and
who
to
bill
the
receive
was
drawee
the
whom
will
check
insufficient
to
is
addressed
credit
in
(
the
bank).
England ( the
written).
pay
the
bill
of
exchange--
funds or credits on deposit
presumably
to cover the
face
bill.
bills
public
to
refusal
Paper currency.
of
(
its
The
on the grounds of
until
The person or firm in Britain which holds the sterling
on
person
1727
The person who has a sterling credit in Britain,
Drawee.
credit
£ 100
From
three parties.
and who writes
the
to
forth
and
involved
Drawer.
to
bills.
sterling
The financial instrument by which sterling credits were
technicality,
practice,
of
and
As
or
a
notes
private
going
rate
which
of
in
to
were
debts.
1755,
beginning
measure,
war
legal
a
pass
Virginia
tender
for
issued
most
(
a
series
but
not
At first merchants accepted paper for sterling
exchange,
but soon discovered that they thereby
lost money when the exchange continued to rise faster than they could use their
notes
to
buy
bills
of
exchange
to
send
to
Britain.
In 1764
Parliament
responded
to the growing mercantile pressure with a law which forbid the colonies from
making
paper
money
legal
tender
for
private
sterling
debts
and
protected
the
�10-
merchants from having to accept such paper unless they willingly chose to
do
In
so.
spite
these
of
strictures,
a
limited
amount
of
paper
money
continued
to be used in Virginia for both public and private transactions until the
Revolution.
Tobacco
After the passage of tobacco inspection legislation in 1730,
notes.
all good tobacco was to be lodged in public warehouses while it awaited shipThe
England.
to
ment
warehouse
receipts,
or
notes,
were
allowed
to
pass
as
an impromptu currency in the sense that they could be transferred from one
to
person
for
the
another,
specific
until their final holder redeemed them at the warehouse
amount
of
tobacco
specified
on
the
face
of
the
note.
They
were not successful as a currency since they had no intrinsic or fixed value.
Rather they represented whatever that amount of tobacco might be worth at the
price
current
on
any
given
day.
to accept a tobacco note was in a
Hence,
sense a bit of speculation because one hoped the value of tobacco would rise
rather than fall between the time of acceptance and redemption or transfer of
the
note.
Inflation
devaluation.
or
The two parallel economic processes by which the
absolute value of a given amount of money loses purchasing power over a given
period
of
practice
insist
time.
when
upon
the
Money is devalued either by official decree or unofficial
same
charging
amount
more
for
buys
the
less.
same
Prices
item.
are
inflated
when
sellers
�Questions
VOL.
4,
No.
8Z,
Answers
4
May 1983
This special issue of Questions and Answers
contains background information requested by interpreters
who wish to know more about the eighteenth—
century histories
of the six countries attending the 1983 Summit.
Canada
France
Germany
Italy
Japan
United Kingdom
A Bi- Monthlv Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�UNITED KINGDOM
In the eighteenth century England was an important commercial
and manufacturing
porcelain,
tin,
center.
and
She exported woolen goods,
glassware.
silk,
flax,
lead,
A large part of her exports were goods
from America and the East and West Indies that were re- exported to
Europe in British ( which included colonial)
tobacco,
sugar,
rice,
pitch,
tar,
hardwoods,
ships.
and
These
East
included
Indian textiles.
England was also a military and naval power to be reckoned with in the
eighteenth century.
English society of the period, though highly structured, was
no
longer
feudal.
When William, of Orange, and Mary accepted the English
crown in 1689, a different monarchy was ushered in - - ne very much
o
limited by the English Bill of Rights that protected the rights and
privileges of English citizens ( though it did not specifically protect
the rights of the citizens in England' s colonies).
Williamsburg' s associations with England are obvious and
plentiful:
Virginia' s governors, who resided in Williamsburg, were
representatives
English monarchs.
Virginia' s bicameral legis-
lature is based upon the English system;
legal codes were copied from
the
English.
of
the
In the eighteenth century Virginia' s tobacco and other
goods were shipped to England in exchange for manufactured goods.
Virginians were said to be as fashionable as Londoners in their homes
and clothing.
The professors at William and Mary in the colonial
period were usually English.
Often the Virginia gentry sent their sons
to English universities, and Virginia ministers trained at William and
Mary had to go to England to be ordained.
�United
Kingdom
cont. (
2):
Although it is common to equate England with Great Britain,
the United Kingdom
Wales,
as we know it
Scotland and Ireland.
Act of Union
was actually composed of England,
Scotland was joined to the others by the
in 1707.
Three of Virginia' s royal governors were Scots:
Dinwiddie,
and Dunmore.
Spotswood,
Marrhants in Williamsburg were mostly English.
not Scottish, but in Virginia as a whole many merchants and factors
were Scottish or worked for Scottish companies.
There was
a
good
proportion of Scots among the clergy and professors at the College of
William and Mary.
James McClurg, a native Virginian, received his
medical training at Edinburgh University and became William and Mary' s
first
professor
of medicine.
Williamsburg' s best known Irishman was coachmaker Elkanah
Deane, who purchased four lots on the west side of Palace Street in 1772.
�CANADA
Canada was settled by the French in the early seventeenth
century.
Colonists were largely fur traders who ranged over a vast
territory as far as the Mississippi,
along the St.
Lawrence River.
or peasant farmers who settled
The administration of the country was
framed in Versailles and the resident governor at
Quebec
complete authority in carrying out the royal orders.
citizen
exercised
no
political
rights.
had
The French -Canadian
French and English conflict
for control of North America culminated in the French and Indian War
known in Europe as the Seven Years'
War) ending in 1760.
In the Treaty
of Paris of 1763 France ceded all claims in Canada to Great Britain
as the price for retaining the French West Indies.
The Treaty of Paris of 1763 put French- Canadians and English
colonists on the same footing as English subjects,
were very different in origin,
religion,
but the two groups
and institution.
This
resulted
in considerable antagonism between the English who settled in Canada
after the Treaty and the French - Canadians.
Some
of
the
English would
have abolished every French institution in Canada but the Quebec Act,
though it required an oath of allegiance to the English crown,
sanctioned
the Roman Catholic Church, and English criminal law existed side -by - side
with
French
civil
law.
During the American Revolution the Continental Congress
wished to gain control of Canada by force.
repulsed
at
all
points.
About
However,
the Americans were
40, 000 Loyalists from the American
colonies emigrated to Canada during and after the Revolution to settle
primarily in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
�JAPAN
During the eighteenth century,
of military rulers called Shoguns,
and society were conservative,
vities,
Government
of the Tokugawa family.
agrarian,
Foreign influences,
structure.
Japan was ruled .by a series
and feudal in outlook and
especially Christian missionary acti-
were viewed as disruptive to the stability and order created,
by the newly centralized government.
expelled the Portuguese
insignificant
limit
these
influences,
and banned foreign books in 1639,
Chinese and Dutch representatives
Western mercantile
To
interests
and merchants
saw the potentials
Japan
and restricted
to Nagasaki in 1641.
for Japan' s
compared with those of her larger neighbor,
trade as
China,
and
did not seriously challenge these restrictions until the mid - nineteenth
century.
While there were many restrictions on trade and contact,
Japan' s
self- imposed
isolation was
never
The Dutch,
complete.
who
were willing to have trade without religion, continued to be a source
of
information about
books was relaxed,
was
a
small but
and military
the West
for
Japan.
and for the rest
continuous
subjects.
Japanese
In 1720,
the ban on foreign
of the eighteenth century there
interest
in
Western art,
science,
This limited trade and intellectual contact had
little effect on Japanese society, but did provide a basis for the
rapid changes which took place in Meiji Japan
of
the
1860s.
Japan during the second half of the eighteenth century was
a stable,
own
structured,
and self- contained society, developing along its
lines with little outside
hermit.
influence,
but it was not
a stagnant
Much of what the West knows today as traditional Japanese
culture developed to a high form during this period,
and the centralization
�Japan
cont. (
2):
and reform of government gave the country a period of peace and economic
stability that provided the base for Japan' s rapid development in the
nineteenth
and
twentieth
centuries.
�FRANCE
France was unified much earlier than Germany or Italy, its
monarchy having survived for several hundred years by the eighteenth
century.
Its hierarchical society
tenure that encompassed the king,
and peasant
farmers.
was based on a feudal system of land
the aristocracy ( nobles),
commoners,
Louis XV and Louis XVI were on the throne for
most of the eighteenth century - Louis XVI ascended the throne on the
same day the English Parliament passed the Boston Port Actin the spring
of
1774.
Since the Middle Ages,
economy combining agriculture,
France has been noted for a mixed
industry,
and trade.
Eighteenth- century
French scientists and thinkers ( including Rousseau and Voltaire) exerted
great influence on European and American intellectual thought and
development.
Beginning in the early seventeenth century, France had
colonies in the New World - -in Canada,
the West
Indies,
and Louisiana.
France and England fought each other several times in the eighteenth
century.
The Treaty of Paris of 1763 that ended the French and Indian
War ceded to England all French claims to territory in Canada in
exchange for France retaining an interest in the West Indies.
Virginia colonists followed French trends in fashion, manners,
and dancing.
French wines and brandies were imported and served at
Virginia' s best dinner tables and in Williamsburg' s taverns.
Refugee
Huguenots settled in Virginia and Williamsburg itself attracted numerous
Frenchmen including Jean Marot,
Gabriel Maupin,
Lafong,
The French language was
and Peter de la Croix.
and Mary beginning in 1779.
Blovet Pasteur, Monsieur
taught at William
�France
cont. (
2):
France under Louis XVI was allied with the Americans in the
Revolutionary War.
Many French troops were in Williamsburg especially
before and after the Seige of Yorktown.
in the American army,
Marquis de Lafayette,
a general
was a favorite with Williamsburg residents and
upon returning to the States in 1824, he visited a thankful Williamsburg,
staying overnight in the Peyton Randolph House.
Some of
the ideas
expressed in the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia Declaration
of Rights influenced several French revolutionaries and helped bring an
end to the monarchy and feudal society of France in 1789.
�GERMANY
A distinction must be made between " Germany"
entity and " Germany"
Germany"
as a geographic term.
As
a
as a political
geographic
term,
designated the center of the European continent for at least
2000 years.
However,
Germany has been a political entity only since -
1871 when Chancellor Bismarck accomplished unification.
Thus,
Germany
as we know it is the youngest of the European great powers while it
is populated by one of the oldest peoples of Europe.
The early history of Germany is not one of a German state but
of German tribes that eventually grew into numerous large and small
independent principalities and small independent cities ruled by dukes,
electors,
and kings who owed their allegiance to the Holy Roman
Emperor. (
George I,
was Elector
the founder of the present Royal House of England,
of Hanover,
one of
these principalities.)
In the
eighteenth
century the importance of the Holy Roman Empire was declining rapidly.
The unstable
situation
gave Frederick II ( "
the
another of the principalities,
Great ")
of
Prussia,
the opportunity to assume a position of
strong leadership in a politically disunited Germany.
During the eighteenth century German music,
philosophy reached great heights.
later emigrated to England)
period
in music.
Lessing,
J.
S.
Bach
and
G.
literature, and
F.
Handel ( who
were the great figures of the late Baroque
German literature and philosophy saw the likes of
Schiller,
Goethe,
and Kant at work.
German manufactured goods used in eighteenth- century Virginia,
such as " oznaburg,"
a coarse linen fabric made
flutes were shipped via England.
The
first
in Osnabruck, and German
German
settlement
Virginia was at Germanna in what is now Orange County.
in
The German
�Germany cont. (
2):
settlers were brought over
to work in Governor
and
most
furnaces.
About
1720,
of
the
original
Germantown in what is now Fauquier County.
also settled in the Valley of Virginia.
number of Germans,
via
Spotswood' s
settlers
iron mines
removed
to
A strong German element
Beginning about 1720 a large
many of whom were artisans,
came into the valley
Philadelphia.
Hessians fought with the English in the American Revolution.
The German language was taught at William and Mary beginning in 1779.
Professor Minnegerode
Christmas tree,
introduced a
tradition,
the
in mind that Germans who emigrated to Amer-
ica did not come from " Germany "
Bavaria,
German
in Williamsburg in 1842.
It should be kept
Rather,
favorite
because
it
did not
yet
exist
as
such.
they came from the various independent states such as Prussia,
Saxony,
and others.
�ITALY
The Italian nation is very old ( the oldest in Europe after
Greece) but as a modern state. very young,
dating from only 1861.
What we today know as Italy was in the eighteenth century a
collection of individual states including Sardinia,
of Milan,
the Kingdom of
the Two
Sicilies,
and
Savoy,
others.
the Duchy
These
states
remained divided and many were being fought over by the major powers of
the
time.
They had no influence in British American affairs.
Reforms,
similar to the ones taking place outside of Italy
in the eighteenth century,
transformed the internal policy of several
Italian states.
These changes were characterized by antifeudalism,
anticlericalism,
religious
cratic
reform.
tolerance,
Italian art
and administrative
and bureau-
centered in such places as Rome and Venice
continued to exert strong influence on European art and Italian composers
such as Vivaldi,
Pergolese,
and
Scarlatti were at work in the eighteenth
century.
There were very early Italian settlers in Virginia as evidenced
by instructions to Sir Francis Wyatt,
1626: "
Italian,
Virginia governor from 1621 to
Italians sent to set up a glass furnace" at Jamestown.
Serafina Formicola, "
publican,"
Another
was in York County by 1775 and
operated a tavern in Williamsburg and owned property here.
Phillip Mazzei came to Virginia in 1773 with some Italians
to undertake an experiment in grape - growing and wine -making in Albemarle
County near Monticello.
college
He also grew grapes in Williamsburg on the
lands.
The Italian language was taught at William and Mary beginning
in 1779 when Charles ( Carlo)
Bellini,
a native of Florence,
was
�Italy cont. (
2):
appointed the first professor of modern languages.
Thomas Jefferson visited northern Italy while he was in Europe
as American minister to France. "
Charlottesville,
Monticello,"
the name of his home in
is an Italian word meaning " little mountain."
�Questions
VOL.
4,
No.
81,
Answers
5
June
1983
This issue responds to the questions submitted to the faculty during
Because many of the questions did not
1983' s Core Curriculum training.
relate
to
the courses
taught we will
Questions
and
HOW SWEET
include them in future issues
of
IS YOUR TOOTH?
1.
Answers.
It has been tradition of interpretors at Colonial Williamsburg to
speak of
sugar as
was
a scarce and expensive commodity;
this
really
1983'
the case during the eighteenth century?
This
question,
like most we have dealt with,
question which must be answered
is really a multiple
in several parts.
First,
how scarce
s
was
CORE
sugar in Virginia during the eighteenth century? At any given time, in
any given part of the colony, the supply of sugar available would have
fluctuated greatly, but we can make some general statements about overall
availability.
In 1730, for example, roughly 250, 000 pounds of sugar
mostly muscovado or coarse brown sugar) was imported into Virginia
same time that
about 75, 000
gallons of
molasses were
imported.
at the
Given
about
40, 000 people ( white and black, young and old) in the colony at this time,
that works out to about 2 pounds of sugar and II gallon of molasses per
In 1772,
person.
about 780, 000 pounds of sugar ( slightly less than 95% of
With
this was muscovado) and 220, 000 gallons of molasses were imported.
a total population of about 500, 000 people, this made for about 11 pounds of
sugar and I gallon of molasses per person.
If one argues that white people probably used more sugar than was given
to black slaves, the actual per capita consumption for whites was probably
somewhat higher
than the gross numbers for
either point
in
unfortunately) that he' s giving his slaves brown sugar at the rate of less
than 20 pounds every three months, or about one quarter pound per day at
the
Obviously if Carter was using sugar at this high rate,
most.
not have
used much sugar at
some
all.
to consider is the cost of sugar..
Again, referring to in the late 1760' s and early 1770' s we discover he' s paying
an average of 5 pence per pound for brown sugar.
Since he' s buying it from
The
second fact
Landon Carter,
Norfolk merchants and Rappahannock River Merchants at
the
same average,
we
can assume that the price was fairly uniform throughout the colony at that
time
Since most of the sugar imported into Virginia both early and late
the customs
in the eighteenth century came to the Lower James River -district including Norfolk -- it may be true that at least in times of
shortage,
sugar was
cheaper
in
the
Lower
Tidewater
than in
TRAING
time would
We know for example that Landon Carter was using brown sugar at
rates which varied between one half and three quarters of a pound per day
At the same time he implies ( he' s not very explicit
in the early 1770' s.
suggest.
people must
CURILM
the more
remote
parts of the colony.
Bi—
Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
QUESTION
�By way of comparison, we might also note,
which
a fine
cost of
price
series
for
sugar
sugar ranged from a little
exists
that in Philadelphia,
from 1720
to
the
over 3 pence per pound
around
A
about 51 pence per pound on the eve of the Revolution.
for
Revolution,
similar price
Never-
series for Virginia is under study, but has not yet been completed.
theless,
given the
evidence from Landon Carter,
the
1730 to
and a number of Virginia -
storekeepers, we can safely say, that Virginia prices appear to have followed
a pattern similar
to
that
of
Philadelphia.
Finally, was sugar a scarce commodity, and a rare treat for the average
Probably not, but again, we must remember that particular
Virginian?
On
conditions could vary widely with place and time.
molasses were
readily
available at
the whole
Some
reasonable prices.
sugar
people
and
like
Most
Landon Carter obviously had no trouble satisfying their sweet tooths.
likely there were others, particularly among the slave population, who found
sugar
WHEN
2.
to be
indeed a rare
treat.
IS A TON NOT A TUN?
If tobacco is measured as four hogsheads equals a ton of freight, why
doesn' t
a hogshead weigh 500
pounds?
The answer to this apparently simple question is rather complex, and in
It stems from the complicated tradigood English fashion rather confusing.
tions of English shipping, commerce and metrology ( the study of weights and
measures).
If you will bear with me, I will try to keep this as simple and
short
as
possible.
English measures
from Mediaeval
of volume or capacity,
times
and the ton --
a
have
included
measure
of
the
weight.
a measure
tun -The tun, a large
cask for holding liquids came in two varieties, one for ale and one for wine.
Prior
size
to
of
1707,
the
their volumes were not
gallon.
standardized,
and
depended
The range was between 33 and 41 cubic feet.
upon the
A
ton was
The ton of 2, 000
a measure of weight that also came in a variety of sizes.
pounds which we know today is actually what the English would call a short
This was the ton and
ton made up of 20 hundredweights of 100 pounds each.
the hundredweight or Cwt.
that Virginians used in the tobacco trade.
The
more common English measure and the one used exclusively in England during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was the English long ton, made up
The long ton thus equals
of 20 hundredweights each weighing 112 pounds.
2240 pounds.
First,
The relationship between a tun and a ton is twofold.
water,
the
handiest liquid for use in measuring, weighs just over 62 pounds per cubic
foot, so 36 cubic feet of water weighs 2232 pounds,
long ton.
A gallon of water, by the smallest wine
or approximately one
measure weighs just over
8 pounds, while a gallon by the largest ale measure weighs just over 10 pounds.
Thus,
depending upon the size of the measure,
a tun of water,
or wine ( which
weighs only slightly more) ranged from about 2100 pounds in weight to 2500 pounds.
Clearly then, a tun of water or wine could also be thought of as a ton in weight.
The second relationship between the tun and the ton follows from the first.
The mediaeval wine trade was the traditional basis from which English shipping
and freighting practices were derived.
the wine
of
weight,
of
trade,
freight
became the standard unit of
rates.
the
tun,
the
standard
unit
even some of
ton of weight.
the
shippers
Thus when
of
freight and hence the determiner
Although rates were always determined by volune --
everyone --
capacity with
Thus
it
seems,
lighter
not
tended to equate
cargoes
such
as wool,
tun
or
�later tobacco,
or "
were to be shipped, some additional definitions of " tunn"
the English interchanged the words as well as the concepts --
tone" --
were
This brings
us to
tobacco
As we have seen,
as
we have
seen,
volume
until 1707.
and the standard of four hogsheads
In the case of capacity measures,
not a ton.
even though,
Volume became the key --
needed.
of units were not standardized
to
the ton.
four hogsheads of wine or ale makes a tun,
however,
tun became corrupted to ton,
and so
long as the volume of the freight was no heavier than wine, the rate based
upon
the
volume
of " ton"
satisfied
everyone.
But what is the real relationship between the tobacco hogshead and the
tun,
and hence
the " freight
ton ?"
Before 1658,
we do not know how big the
common tobacco hogshead might have been, but we do know that at least as
early as 1630, the standard unit of freight for Virginia tobacco was four
that this was estimated by contemof tobacco.
Obviously, the
shippers -those receiving the freight charges -- must have been very
pleased to earn a " tunn' s" worth of freight for less than half of a ton' s
hogsheads
poraries
to
We also know,
the " tunn"
to be known more
than 1000 pounds
weight.
In 1658,
the tobacco hogshead was fixed by the General Assembly,
container whose diameter was 26
43
inches at
as a
the head and had a height of
Contemporaries estimated this hogshead to contain from 350 to
inches.
Since that volume of about 13 - cubic feet made
about 500 pounds to tobacco.
of four hogsheads a little more than 52 cubic feet, it is clear,
the " tunn"
Virginians had begun to manipulate the to their own advantage.
40 cubic feet --
that even at that early date,
traditional " tunn of
freight" --
By
1700 the Virginia hogshead had increased to 30 inches in diameter at the
a volume of just under 20 cubic
head by 48 inches high --
feet.
Still, they
Although
continued to pay their freight at four hogsheads to the freight ton.
the size of the hosgshead did not change again before the Revolution, its
From an average of 500 pounds in 1700, it increased to an
weight did.
which •did not
Still, the freight rate -average of 1000 pounds by 1775.
was based upon four hogsincrease significantly, except in time of war -heads
to
the
ton. -
To summarize this long story, let me repeat,
the
English wine
four hogsheads --
trade,
also
a
tun --
a measure
were filled with water or wine,
ton of
2240
a measure
of
that once upon a time, in
which
capacity --
When
capacity.
these
tuns
contained
and hogsheads
they weighed very nearly an English long
In the tobacco trade,
pounds.
of
the standard of four hogsheads
equals a freight ton, was in effect as early as 1630 and lasted until the
Revolution.
Neither the volume of the tobacco hogshead,
remained constant and
hogshead gained both
that
3.
equivalent to
in
size
those used in
and weight,
even
nor its weight
the wine
though one
trade.
The
could always
tobacco
say
for freight " four hogsheads make a ton ".
What were the number of ships that " didn' t make it" in the 1750?
In some ways,
this question is like asking " how many miles of the cave
have not yet been explored ?"
because ships " lost
from again" are virtually impossible to trace.
at
sea"
or " never heard
We do however,
know some-
thing about the volume of shipping which did arrive safely, and from it
extrapolate some " guesses"
about those that did not.
In
the years
around
1730, probably 200 to 250 ships arrived annually in Virginia from all ports
of
the
call.
safe
By 1772 this number had risen to 768.
sprung planks,
Five major hazards haunted
leaks,
First, among these were natural problems:
These were constant threats, although it
broken mast etc.
arrival
of
ships.
�probably didn' t cause the loss of more than one or two ships per year.
Again, these were
Second, storms posed an unending terror for mariner' s.
except for occasional
serious dangers, but didn' t get too many ships -hurricanes which
often sank numbers
of
ships at a time --
since
sailors
tried to avoid ocean crossings during the stormiest months of the year.
Third and
fourth were pirates
After 1720,
and war.
ships bound from England
to Virginia had little problem with pirates, but they were always a menance
in the West Indies.
Wars, which filled 41 of the 76 years before the American
Revolution often caused major havoc upon the shipping trade, but again, this
Finally natural
was a danger that could be avoided by the prudent master.
navigational hazards such as reefs,
of
and
Along with storms,
ships.
the most dangerous for
sand bars,
and shoals sank a fair number
these problems were really the most persistant
Remember,
sailors.
it was not until after the
Revolution that a lighthouse was built at Cape Henry.
To recap,
year,
but,
Probably no more than ten per
how many vessels were lost? --
you never knew when
it might
be
your
turn.
Until the late nine-
teenth century, getting there was probably not half the fun.
4.
How were towns
organized
in Virginia?
During the last quarter of the seventeenth century, many Virginians
became interested in the development of towns as a means of improving the
By a series of legislative acts in 1680,
trade and industry of the colony.
1691, and 1705 collectively known as the " Town Acts" twenty towns were
created"
Before the
in Tidewater Virginia.
surveyors
creations
on plats
of lots,
merchants feared colonial competition.
some
people began
purchasers
of 1692"
to
settle
at
little more than
1680 and
1691 were dis-
primarily because London and outport
allowed by the British government -and
towns were
the acts of
the
Nevertheless,
future
some
town sites.
lots were sold
The Yorktown
which were studied in the Core Curriculum course,
Learning from the York County Project, are a prime example of these sorts
of
town
developers.
The "
survivor
Town Act"
Hobbs
5.
towns
towns" (
include:
Hole ( modern
those that eventually grew into towns)
Yorktown,
Norfolk,
West
Point,
of the
Urbanna,
and
Tappahannock).
What was the origin of Williamsburg?
Williamsburg was created by a special legislative act in 1699.
1722,
it,
like all the
towns
mentioned above,
by a group of Trustees of Ffeoffees,
was "
run"
Until
or " supervised"
individually named in the act that
In the case of Williamsburg, vacancies among the Trustees
In the towns created by
were to be filled by the governor' s appointment.
created
the
towns.
the " Town Acts ",
Trustees ( much in
6.
vacancies were filled by appointment of the surviving
the
same manner
What were chartered towns,
as
Parish Vestries
supplied
their vacancies).
and how were they different from other towns?
During the colonial period,
only two Virginia towns received charters
Williamsburg
The
while Norfolk was so honored in 1736.
that were granted by the governor in the name of the King.
received its charter in 1722,
benefits of having a charter were several.
of the
First,
the freeholders of
each
two towns had the right to elect their own member to the House of
Burgesses.
Second,
these
towns had limited
self
government
through the
�institutions
of the Common Council and the Mayor' s Court
The
of Aldermen.
first group was elected by the freeholders of the town, and it in turn
The Mayor' s Court or Hustings Court, or Borough
elected the second group.
Court ( all names were used at various times) had jurisdiction over " all
cause personal and mixed" not exceeding b20 current money or 4, 000 pounds
of
tobacco which arose within its jurisdiction.
Third,
the
towns
could
hold twice weekly markets as well as semi -annual fairs and levy tools and
fees
for
the use of
the market.
The towns could not,
however,
raise money
by taxation separately from the county levy, without the express permission
of 'a
7.
special legislative
act.
How did people acquire land in towns?
The original ownership of land within all towns was vested in the
Trustees,
were
the
and when the first lots were purchased,
Trustees.
the grantors of the lands
The money raised by the sales of town lots was used to
offset the cost of purchasing the town lands from the original owners and the
costs of surveying the lots and laying out the streets, wharfs, and market
In the case of Yorktown, and all other " Town Acts" towns, the land
places.
The
was first purchased by the county and then turned over to the Trustees.
The
proceeds from lot sales in Yorktown were then returned to York County.
land had cost the county 10, 000 pounds of tobacco and lots were sold ( as
prescribed by law) for 180 pounds of tobacco each.
The initial purchasers of town lots were required to build houses upon
them within a year or
the lots would be forfeited to
the Trustees,
and could
Once
be re -sold to another buyer who would meet the building requirements.
a lot had been built upon, and hence its title been permanently confirmed
to the grantee or buyer, he was free to keep the land or sell it to whomever
he chose
for whatever price he and the new purchaser agreed upon.
In the case. of Williamsburg, lots were also sold by the Trustees,
there was a time -limit for building and confirmation of title.
The
and
difference
between Williamsburg and the " Town Act" towns was that Williamsburg had been
funded by the legislature, and the proceeds from its lots was returned to the
General Assembly.
8.
How were the later eighteenth century towns organized?
Towns such as Fredericksburg ( 1728),
Suffolk ( 1742),
and Alexandria ( 1749),
were all established by separate acts of the General Assembly.
In
general
they were directed by Trustees who had the same powers and duties as those
appointed
under
the " Town Acts."
Since some of these later towns were in
effect the " private creations" of particular investors,
and their lands were
not purchased by the counties or the colony, the returns from lots sales in
these " private towns" went to those who had advanced the money in the first
place.
9.
How
can I
find out
more about
Virginia
towns?
A short bibliography on Virginia towns and urban development is available
from your master teachers or at the Research Center Library.
Answered by:
Peter V.
Bergstrom
�10.
I do not understand the relationship of small land holdings with
town development?
Historical geographers argue that as towns develop the need of town
dwellers for food, fodder, and wood work a change on the agricultural
practices of nearby farmers.
In their effort to take advantage of these
new opportunities, many farmers turn to " truck farming" which can be
accomplished
on small
tracts
of land.
Also, because of the value of such
land near towns becomes -valuable.
Thus produces
rural to urban trade,
additional pressure to subdivide large tracts into smaller,
ones.
high priced
It follows from this agrument that farmers near towns are involved
in a very different agricultural economy than those living in distant rural
areas.
One of the goals of the York County Project is to see if this change
in fact happened around Williamsburg and Yorktown.
11. When a person visits Colonial Williamsburg today, are they seeing the
way the upper 25% of The Colony lived?
Admittedly many of our exhibition buildings display the life style of
well -to -do eighteenth century Virginians, but Colonial Williamsburg also
shows the work of many artisans whose position in society was well below
the
elite.
Moreover, urban life styles may have differed significantly
For these reasons it is not possible to say precisely
from rural ones.
whether the top 10% or 25% or even 50% of society is shown here.
Rather one
should strive to include in an interpretation the experiences of those
Virginians who are not so apparent in the exhibitions -laborers,
12.
widowed women,
black slaves,
poorer
etc.
Why did Jamestown settlers starve?
Couldn' t they have eaten fish?
In fact they did eat fish availing themselves with the great sturgeon
There are several explanations for why mortality
was so high, especially during the infamous " starving time" of winter 1609/
runs of spring and summer.
1610.
Some historians blame it on the attitudes of the early settlers
which saw manual labor, such as farming, as beneath them.
Other historians
detect in the first settlers a paralyzing apathy which kept them from
helping themselves.
Recently, Carville Earle has offered a more plausable
explanation.
is
He notes that the magnitudes of death during " starving times"
exaggerated.
In fact he fould that adequate food supplies were always
available;
rather it was disease, especially typhoid, dysentery, and salt
poisoning from the contaminated estuarial water supply that caused the high
death rate at early Jamestown.
Answered by:
Kevin Kelly
13. Supposedly, today, we Americans charge $ 600 per credit card we possess
in a year' s time --
even with today' s outrageous interest rate! With
the tobacco warehouse receipt and / or the Bills of Exchange, etc.,
was
their credit usually over extended or were they better consumers and
stayed within
their
credit
limit?
Credit, then and now, was partly a matter of need, partly a matter of
availability of credit ( less in hard times, more in flush times), and
naturally) partly a matter of the creditworthiness, real or presumed,
the
borrower.
of
It is, therefore, necessary to know what the individual wanted
credit for, whether the economy ( before the 1760s chiefly the tobacco trade)
was prosperous or depressed, and who were the prospective debtors and
creditors.
Overall, Virginia planters came to owe a good deal of money to
�7-
one another and to British merchants, but it would be almost' impossible to
judge whether they carried a proportionately heavier or lighter load of debts,
as also whether they tended to be better managers of their assets' than people
in
the present
14.
time.
For visual interpretation:
How many hogsheads might an average farmer' s
Would the crops harvest reflect only his
labor or the labor of other members of the family, one or more slaves?
labor
for
one year produce?
It is difficult to say how many hogsheads of tobacco an " average"
planter might make, but the small planter was usually considered to be' one
who made from 2 to 6 or 8 hogsheads.
Counting on an average production' of
one hogshead or a little more per worker, that would reflect the labor :of;
his family and his servants or slaves, if he had any. Of course,
planter would also raise or grow almost all of his family' s food.
15.
What
is
a
letter book?
such a
Who kept them and why?
A letter book, as I know it, is a copybook of letters sent, usually
kept by a clerk for a merchant, planter, or public official, but certainly
applicable to any copybook of letters sent.
of 19th C.
In that sense it is the predecessor
letterpress copies, of carbon copies retained, or of xerox copies
Like present -day carbon or xerox copies, such as the one I have '.made
today.
of your question and my answer, they serve to record for later review or
one has written a correspondent.
As they are less ephemeral
in bulk and nature than their more recent substitutes and successors, so
verification, what
because of their rag paper and hand bindings they have more often survived
than some files of loose letters received.
They have great value for the
historian of business, material culture, social, and political history as
well as of economic history, for which they provide not only sources of
essential evidence but also quotations of contemporary comments.
Examples
would be the remarkable long series of letter books of Robert " King" Carter
that survive for most of the years from 1720 to 1732; the delightful letter
book of 1717 to 1742 kept by that miserly curmudgeon John Custis of Williamsburg;
and for a public official, the letter book of the Virginia Agent in London,
James Abercromby, which Dr. George Reese is editing for the Virginia Historical
Society from the execrable, amost illegible original now in the Archives
Division of
16.
the Virginia State Library.
What is the origin of
the term Hogshead?
As far as Messrs. Bergstrom and Hemphill have been able to determine,
no
one
seems
to
know
the
answer
to
that
question.
The most knowledgeable
American scholar in this field, Professor John McCusker of the University
of Maryland, could not himself answer the question but agreed to submit a
note of inquiry on the subject to the British. Mariner' s Mirror (
a
magazine of nautical history) and to the corresponding American learned
John has promised the undersigned a sight,
journal, The American Neptune.
We can only promise to continue to pursue an answer.
shortly of his inquiry.
Answered by:
John Hemphill
�17.
Broccoli was included on your list of eighteenth- century vegetables.
I' ve had several guests question broccoli
Could you give a reference?
as
an eighteenth- century plant.
Seeds
Broccoli was grown in the Williamsburg area by the late 1750s.
advertised for sale in the Virginia Gazette by Palace gardener Christopher
Ayscough in 1759 included " colliflower brocoli" and " purple brocoli" as well
In his
as two kinds of cauliflower and seven kinds of cabbage.
Treatise
on
Gardening, written about 1765, Williamsburg resident John Randolph discusses
The fact that he includes directions for cooking
the cultivation of broccoli.
broccoli -- "
When
you cut the flowers or heads,
cut to about five or six inches
of the stem, and before they are boiled, strip off the skin, and after having
washed them, boil them in a clean cloth and serve them up with butter, as
ranliflowers
are " -- suggests
On the other hand,
the plant was recently introduced.
the related vegetable, Brussel sprouts,
was not introduced into eastern Virginia until the 1790s.
apparently
Brussel
sprouts
are listed on a 1793 broadside advertising seeds available from Richmond
seedsman Minton
18.
Collins.
Would a lower middling eighteenth- century family have industries inside
the home that would bring in money or sell excess vegetables?
Would
the
housewife, besides doing her own work, take in washing or cook foods for
sale?
As you suggest,
Certainly.
foods are likely possibilities.
taking in washing and selling prepared
Housewives,
their daughters,
and other
poor -to- lower- middling women might also spin ( using a distaff and spindle
if they lacked a spinning wheel);
knit caps,
gloves,
or stockings;
mend or
sew garments; or sell fruits and vegetables and excess milk or butter ( if,
they had a cow) at the Wednesday and Saturday markets, to regular customers,
or from door to door.
Single
male
town
residents
recorded payments to women ( black and white)
and
and
travelers
for washing,
mending,
spinning,
Patricia
Gibbs
sewing.
Answered by:
19.
occasionally
Did a planter have any way of insuring his crop once it had left his.
property?
Once it was shipped,
the planter could insure his tobacco while at
When it was in the inspection warehouse,
responsibility for it.
sea.
the Colonial Government assumed
Answered by:
20.
Harold
Gill
Were there any Black overseers, or free Black overseers in the colony?
Yes, Landon Carter, for instance, had a black overseer on one of his
quarters.
Answered by:
Phillip Morgan
�21.
Did it, the crop,
When did they begin growing peanuts in the area?
start in the nineteenth century?
Peanuts
are
such
a
part
of
the
economy in the Tidewater area so I would like to know when it all began.
Peanuts were cultivated on a small scale in Virginia in the late
eighteenth
1782)
century.
Thomas Jefferson' s Notes on the State of Virginia
includes " ground nuts ( Arachis)"
in 1794 he
grew 65 hills
among the state' s crops.
At Monticello
of " peendars."
His Travels in the
Johann David Schoeph visited here in 1783 and ' 84.
confederation describes peanuts at great length and says that " the blacks
raise ' Been -nuts ( Arachis hypogaea). "
A Virginia Cavalcade article claims that Matthew Harris of Sussex
County was probably the first farmer to raise peanuts specifically for
commerical purposes around
Virginia Cavalcade,
vol.
8,
1842 ( "
no.
Virginia Bunch,
1 ( 1958),
1"
by Robert L.
Scribner,
pp. 16- 1'251).
It was not until after the Civil War that peanuts became big business- in Virginia
or
anywhere
else.
The market received a gigantic boost at the
very end of the nineteenth century and early in the twentieth when George
Washington Carver developed about 300 synthetic products that could be
produced from peanuts.
22.
How far into the eighteenth century was the long german s in use?
The long ' s'
remained in general Use until about the Year 1800."
August Klapper,
CWF,
23.
The Printer in Eighteenth- Century Williamsburg
1155)
Was there a specific reason for wrapping the sugar loaves in blue paper?
Sugar loaves were individually wrapped in blue paper and then packed in
hogsheads.
We don' t know of a specific reason for the use of blue paper.
Answered from the files by:
Lou Powers
�Questions
Vol.
4,
No.
Answers
6
August
What was Carter Burwell' s original plan for
Grove?
In
this
issue we
will examine
the
1983
the creation of Carter' s
development of
Carter' s Grove
as a
plantation and as a seat of power by Carter Burwell and his son Nathaniel
Burwell.
Harold Gill
of
the Research Department has
furnished
the answers
to
the following questions.
1.
How was Carter' s Grove acquired by Carter Burwell in 1737?
Sometime between 1716 and 1721, Robert " King" Carter purchased 1003 acres of
Carter reserved the
land " upon Merchant' s Hundred" in James City County.
profits from the estate for his daughter Elizabeth and her husband Nathaniel
Burwell of Fairfield, Gloucester County,
he
put it, "to
Burwell.
go
to
the
A few months
benefit of
before he
died,
397 acres " upon Merchants Hundred"
Robert Carter
time,
at
died
least,
in
one
for their lives " and afterwards,"
of Mr.
Burwell' s
sons,"
as
Carter
Robert Carter purchased an additional
contiguous
to
the first
1732 when Carter Burwell was
Carter Burwell knew of his
16
tract.
years
inheritance
old.
From
which also
that
included
property in Yorktown and York County from his own father,
Nathaniel Burwell,
who was "
When
reached
possessed
the
age
of
21
of
a
great Estate Real
in
1737-- mother had
and
died
Personal."
three years
Carter
Burwell
earlier - - e
h
came
into possession of a large and scattered estate including lands in York, James
City, Frederick, and Prince William Counties.
In the York and James City
County properties there were six separate tracts, all of which had been
developed for at least a century, so Burwell was not faced with frontier
conditions.
Fouaces, Mill, and Black Swamp quarters were all near Carter' s
Grove,
and Neck -of - land near Jamestown.
establish his
were
home
if he
habitable structures
intended
on
the
to
Burwell
reside
on
had a
choice
of
places
the Lower Peninsula. (
tract at Carter' s Grove from
the
to
There
time Robert
Carter acquired it, because it was a tobacco producing plantation and it must
have
had
an overseer' s
house and
slave
quarters,
besides
the usual .
outbuildings and possibly another house.)
2.
What
sort of
a
man was
Carter
Burwell?
He left
We know very little about Carter Burwell' s private life and thoughts.
almost no correspondence and no diary.
Charles Hansford, the York County
blacksmith and poet, left the only known description of Burwell, written in
the early 1750s:
Had
it been Carter Burwell' s
part or
station
In arms to serve his king, defend a nation;
Had it been Burwell' s lot in camp or field
The
ranks
to
marshall,
or a
truncheon wield,
A Si- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�An army to command,
This
suited
to
or town to win- -
his
genius
would
have
been.
I think his piercing eye, his gallant mien,
Doth very much resemble Prince Eugene.
Had war been his
employment,
doubtless he
A most accomplish' d general would be;
Or, were he to conduct a colony
To settle in some distant country,
His vigilance and foresight would be
The
place
to plant,
and all
his
men
sure
secure.
That. Burwell was a man of estate and good character is suggested by the fact
that Governor Dinwiddie recommended him to the Commissioners for Trade and
Plantations as a proper person to appoint to the council.
His appointment did
not materialize,
records and
suggests
possible
majority,
decided
but fortunately,
an account book
motives
Burwell did leave a mark in the official
that allows
for
his
Burwell married Lucy Grymes,
to make his
us a
actions.
glimpse
In
1737
of
his
when
activities
he
reached
and
his
and within a few years he must have
home at Carter' s Grove.
3.
What exactly did Carter Burwell inherit at Carter' s Grove and what were
the
restrictions
By
on
that
inheritance?
the provisions of Robert Carter' s will and the deed from John Carter,
the
Carter' s Grove estate with the slaves was held by Carter Burwell in tail male.
That is, he did not own it in fee simple; he could not transfer any of the
slaves to other tracts and he was required always to maintain at least the .
If Burwell envisioned
original number of bequeathed slaves on the property.
the development of Carter' s Grove as a non - producing tobacco plantation, as
the
evidence
force
suggests,
there.
attention and
to
continue
reduce
In
a
to
sizable
to
do
labor
cultivate
the number
order
it was
important for him
to be able
to
reduce
the
labor
Tobacco was a labor intensive crop - -it required almost constant
of
that
tobacco
slaves
he
had
at
to
entail was passed on April 28,
The
force.
Because Burwell clearly did not intend
there,
Carter' s
dock,
1749,
governor
it was
important
for
him
to
be
able
to
Grove.
or break,
only ten
signed
the
days
entail.
after
The act docking the
Burwell
petitioned
the
the Assembly for it.
bill on May 11, 1749, and after
a difficult and expensive process the king in Privy Council approved the act
on December
4.
20,
1750.
What was the effect of his docking the entail on the future development of
Carter' s
Grove?
Once Burwell had succeeded in docking the entail he could move slaves away
from the plantation and begin to pursue his grand design for Carter' s Grove.
By reducing the labor force, he changed the agricultural objective of the
plantation.
He did not convert it to a grain and livestock producing farm in
�order
to exploit the Williamsburg market o r to take advantage of
trade,
began
the wheat
which had not yet become a profitable export commodity at the time he
the
process.
It
is
significant
that he
continued
to
produce
tobacco
all of his other estates or quarters in York and James City ,Counties.
Williamsburg market was his goal,
Fouaces
Quarter
for
the "
truck
If
at .
the
then it would have been more logical to use
because it was only about one and a half
farm,"
or two miles from town, whereas Carter' s Grove was eight miles away.
The indications are
that during the occupation of Carter Burwell and his son
Nathaniel at Carter' s Grove very little land was under cultivation --possibly
In 1780,
for instance, Nathaniel Burwell
no more than fifty or sixty acres.
had only eight acres in wheat.
The vast majority of the estate was pasture
for livestock and for providing hay and fodder, while the ravines were most
likely left in forest. ( wring the Revolution a vast amount of firewood was,
sold
from
the
estate.)
It is clear that instead of operating a profit producing tobacco plantation,
Carter Burwell
and
his
son,
Nathaniel,
created and
maintained a
house
and
park
of great beauty and style at Carter' s Grove near Williamsburg where it could
be seen and enjoyed by many prominent Virginians.
Raising tobacco with
it' s unsightly fields, sheds, and slave quarters would have compromised the .
In 1775, Nathaniel
desired sense of harmony and order on the plantation.
Burwell figured the net profits at the various quarters, and Carter' s Grove
Fouaces Quarter was the
was the least profitable --yielding only f28 profit.
most
5.
profitable
How did
Carter' s
at over
f400.
Carter Burwell
plan and
construct
As soon as Burwell received word in 1751,
entail,
the
house and
gardens at
Grove?
he arranged
objective
of
the
to
reduce
the
plantation and
that he had succeeded in docking the
labor force and changed
the
construction
of
the
the agricultural
mansion
began.
As
early as 1743 Burwell paid Robert West for laying nearly 24, 000 bricks and for
rubed
work."
Burwell began in earnest during 1751 to collect the other necessary building
materials for the Grove mansion, spending over f250 for shingles, plank,
shells, and bricks.
By the end of 1751 several craftsmen such as Minitree and
Richard Baylis,
the English joiner who Burwell perhaps
Wheatly were at work.
contracted personally, appeared on the scene during 1752, probably beginning
his work
in August.
Before
the
house was
finished
in
1755,
Burwell
spent a
great deal of money -- approximately f1266 by our calcultion.
Roughly
one - fourth of the cost was in materials.
Not counting whatever slave labor
was
utilized,
Burwell paid eleven skilled and unskilled laborers nearly f800
between 1751 and 1755.
Remarkably, Burwell managed to complete the mansion
without falling into debt.
The house Burwell built at Carter' s Grove
least one
architectural
historian,
the
turned out to be,
best built house
according to at
in Virginia
in
terms
�of
quality
of
Both the
construction.
interior and exterior were of
the
finest
The structure was expensive and if the siting of the house is
considered in light of the thinking at the time on such subjects, Burwell' s
workmanship.
plan
becomes
The
clearer.
house at Carter' s Grove was
greatest possible vista down
then
placed
the river - a vista
-
to
take
advantage
of
the
that ended then on the horizon
of water but which is now blocked by the trees at the riverside and by the
mothball
nearly
the
fleet.
as
The vista from the landside of
extensive.
natural
extension
architecture make clear,
of
the building was probably
The grounds of an eighteenth century estate were to be
of the mansion.
As contemporary writers on landscape
nature was
expected
to " yield Satisfaction
the Beholder and Entertain the Sight every Moment."
the
Sea
or Distant blue
and
What evidence
tobacco
fields)
would
Noble
give
to
View
the Eye
such
as
satisfaction
pleasure.
6.
Hills" ( not
A"
There
are
is
there
four main pieces
conclusion
that Carter' s Grove was created
to be a showplace?
of evidence - -all circumstantial - -that support
that Carter' s Grove was designed
the
to be a show - place:
1)
Burwell docked the entail on Carter' s Grove in order to reduce the labor
force and to eliminate all that goes with maintaining a large labor force at
the
A
site.
large
labor
force was not needed
if
tobacco were not cultivated.
2)
Burwell continued to grow tobacco at his other nearby quarters, and
All of the quarters sold surplus
tobacco was his single most valuable crop.
commodities in Williamsburg.
3)
Burwell spent over f1200 to construct an exceptionally fine residence and
he was as careful about the landscape as he was about the building.
4)
The accounts
of Nathaniel Burwell
show
that Carter' s Grove produced
enough to cover the expenses of maintaining it, but it yielded little profit.
The overseer at Carter' s Grove,
shares,
In
Errata:
of
John Ross,
the June
corrections
1983 issue of Questions and Answers
to be made which are
The correct answer to Question 6,
different
from
two Virginia
name of
was
so
was paid a salary rather
than
because there was very little produced to share.
other
towns
the King.
honored
in
towns ?,
as
there were a couple
follows:
What were
should
received charters
chartered towns, and how were they
During the colonial period, only
that were granted by the governor in the
read:
Williamsburg received its charter in 1722,
1736.
while Norfolk
The benefits of having a charter were several.
�First,
the freeholders of each of the two towns had the right to elect their
own member
to
the House
of
Burgesses.
government through the institutions of
Second,
these
towns had
the Common Council and
limited self
the Mayor' s
Court of Aldermen.
The first group - -the Common Council- - were chosen by the
sitting councilmen,
aldermen,
town.
and mayor from among the freeholders of the
Vacancies among the aldermen were filled by the same process, except
that the choice had to be made from among the sitting councilmen.
was also chosen by this process,
The
mayor
except that his election was an annual event
and he had to be chosen from among the aldermen. The Mayor' s Court or Hustings
Court,
or Borough Court ( all names were used at various times)
had
jurisdiction over " all cause personal and mixed" not exceeding f20 current
money or 4, 000 pounds of tobacco which arose within its jursidiction. Third,
the towns could hold twice weekly markets as well as semi - annual fairs and
levy tolls and fees for the use of the market.
The towns could not, however,
raise money by taxation separately from the county levy, without the express
permission of a
special
legislative act.
The third paragraph of Question 7,
should
How did people acquire land in towns?,
read:
In the case of Williamsburg,
lots were also sold by the Trustees, and there
was a time - limit, which was 2 years, for building and confirmation of title.
The difference between Williamsburg and the " Town Act" towns was that
Williamsburg had been funded by the legislature, and the proceeds from its
lots was returned to the General Assembly.
For
your
Information:
Sign language course being offered by William and Mary' s Special Programs
office.
September
Cost - $
28,
1983 -
8 weeks.
Wednesday Evening ( 7: 30 -
9: 30)
55. 00
Location:
Telephone:
VARC
Campus -
877 - 9231,
Ext.
12070 Jefferson Ave.,
Newport News,
Va.
60
Students may apply for Educational Reimbursement by completing form # 965.
These forms may be obtained from your immediate supervisor.
�Answers
Questions &
pi
Vol 4,
No.
7
October 1983
The answers to these questions about the College of William and Mary,
Hogarth prints and eighteenth century clothing have been provided by the
Research Department
will
and the Department
stimulate more questions
of Collections.
and some independent
Perhaps
research.
these
answers
If you should
have any questions pertaining to- eighteenth century Williamsburg, please
send them to Jane Strauss.
1.
What was the status of the College of William and Mary during the
Revolutionary War? .
During the Revolution the College of William and Mary had few students.
the words of
the
In
college president James Madison, the place was a " desart"
where formerly it had " flourished." College -age boys left school to join the
forces while some of the faculty who remained loyal to the crown returned to
England.
The college officially closed in June 1781 and did not resume
classes
2.
until October 1782.
Was the College of William and Mary under the jurisdiction of the
Episcopal church following the disestablishment of the church in
Virginia?
The College of William and Mary became a private school after the disestablishment of the Anglican church in Virginia.
There were still strong
ties between the college and the Episcopal church primarily because of the
In 1780 James Madison,
members of the Episcopal clergy on the faculty.
president of the college and the Episcopal bishop of Virginia, wrote " it is
now thought that Establishments in favor of any particular Sect are incompatible with the
Freedom of
a Republic."
Thomas
Jefferson reorganized
the
college at. about the same time that he was pursuing the principle of religious
freedom for the State of Virginia.
William and Mary became a private school
in
1784.
From 1776 until the disestablishment of the church in 1784,
college had no official affiliation with either
church or state,
the
but was
looked after by the general assembly. The college remained a private institution until 1906 when it became a state -supported school for training teachers
during Lyon G. Tyler' s presidency.
3.
What happened to the College of William and Mary during the Civil War?
The college was
The Civil War was a devastating period for the college.
closed from May 1861 until the fall of 1865 as the academic buildings were
in ruins, the enrollment scant, and the faculty dispersed.
4.
Why are so many eighteenth prints, such as those by Hogarth, so very
rich in details depicting action and attitudes?
Renaissance and post -renaissance art depends
a good deal on realism or
Part of the attraction or catchiness or convincing quality
of Hogarth' s art is its realism, its recognizability, its ability to persuade'
verisimiltude.
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
�the
viewer that
this is a situation which is
real and which could happen to
him /her.
There,
its
but for the grace of God,
There,
with. the grace of God,
timeliness,
it must be real
5.
its cogency,
and
go I . . ."
on the other hand
and my humility,
go I . . ",
depends on its being convincing -
recognizable
and
not
too
etc.,
which
meant
abstract.
How many dresses would a woman like Mrs.- Burwell of Carter' s Grove
have had?
Not enough eighteenth century inventories enumerate clothing to give a
statistically valid answer to the question of how many gowns were owned by
We can only quote from several inventories which do list
Virginia women.
clothing, keeping in mind that these women may or may not have been typical,
and that some clothing may have been given away during their lifetimes,
before the inventory was taken.
The 1745 inventory of Elizabeth Phillips
York County Records, Vol. 20: 1, p. 12) lists 5 gowns, . along with one pair
of stays, 3 shifts, a hoop and other items such as petticoats, a cloak,
an
apron,
etc.
The total value of her estate is listed at ;
18. 29. 9.
Agnes Hilliard' s 1746 inventory lists 4 gowns ( York County Records,
Vol.
20: 1,
p. 61;
total value b 11. 0. 0 1.)
The 1778 inventory of Mary Colley
includes 10 gowns, a wrapper, 1 pair of stays, and 9 linen shifts, along
with other items of clothing ( York County Records, Vol. 22: 2, p. 299; total
value E
381. 12. 0).
Reminder of Colonial Fair Days -
October
22
and
23.
Public Times and Fairs and Military Encampment -- Handmade goods sold from
booths and wagons, peddlers hawking their wares, entertainments,
and contests for visitors in this re- creation of a colonial fiar.
diversions
There
will be a military encampment of costumed Revolutionary War Soldiers.
�84Z,
Questions
Vol.
4,
No.
Answers
8
December 1983
e
Visitor' s questions and comments help us to see ourselves
For your amusement and edification this
and this museum more clearly.
issue of Questions and Answers is a collection of visitor' s
conversations
about
the Historic
Area.
A Williamsburg Diary, being a collection of curious conversations
overheard by various museum professionals who call said town their
Pm
home.
A visitor approached an attendant at the Information Center.
Curiously, the visitor asked, " Where can I see some of that
delicious mustard ?"
supervisor for help.
Confused,
Although
G
the attendant called upon her
the attendant had worked at
Colonial Williamsburg for many years, she had never heard of such
The supervisor asked, " Now,
how can I
a delicacy being offered.
Delicious mustard,"
repeated
the visitor, " Where can I
help ?" "
find some of it" . . . a long pause followed.
Suddenly, the
supervisor,
for
replied, "
who must have had an appetite
Oh, the militia muster!
That' s
The problem was thus resolved.
on Market Square
5: 00."
word
games,
at
I' m always interested to overhear visitors talking about these
programs.
Cn
One evening I sat with my wife in a restaurant, when
across
from us a man and a woman began
here.
The woman obviously knew one of our interpreters very well
to discuss the " guides"
the man was perhaps visiting for the weekend). "
guide,"
she
said
to
him. "
must be awfully smart . . .
Well,
history."
she
sure
Is
that right ?"
she must know
he
Linda
is
responded, "
quite a
a
she
bit about
does.
But, they ( the guides) get
remarked. "
They do ?"
Yes, and they get paid for
it too.
They get paid to read." [ sic] " They do?
he said,
registering a bit more interest. " Yes,
they get paid to read and
trained." "
he
are expected to know history all the way back to Robert E.
Lee."
The transition from the twentieth century to the eighteenth century is
not easy for modern man.
The following remarks reflect how difficult
it is to separate the plastic world from what is real.
For example:
As we become more skillful in controlling our environment,
especially during the summer and winter months, it should come as
no surprise to hear a visitor often viewing the model of the
Historic Area at the Information Center, ask if the Historic Area
was
also
under
glass.
Upon viewing the Fife and Drum Corps, one admiring visitor
commented that the group and music were well
that the loud speakers couldn' t be found.
syncrotized,
A Bi- Monthly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
but
Jo-
�Even
the
livestock
is
in
question when
the
shepherd
is
asked,
if
the sheep are real.
Or when
the
the hostess at Chownings Tavern
garden,
Historic
as
well
he
characters
as
other
and
the
it air
events are
historic
been described as
Santa Fe
is
inquired, "
often
For
sites.
place where
invited a guest
to
sit in
conditioned?"
confused at
instance,
the Nina,
our museum
Jamestown has
the Pinta and
the
landed.
A visitor noted that the Capitol was
the most important building,
because it was there that Patrick Henry and George Washington
signed
the
Declaration
of
Independence.
Interpreters enjoy exchanging stories about visitors' reaction to
their
tours.
As her tour of the Capitol ended, one building
interpreter was approached by an elderly gentleman who said,
She' s 81."
you' re a dead ringer for my sister.
Some of the most charming remarks are made by the children who visit
These are a few examples.
Colonial Williamsburg.
On.: day as a group interpreter stood in front of the Capitol with
a- school group, she asked the children if the building looked
familiar.
One young observer responded by saying, " yes, it looks
like
the
rest areas
on
tha
interstate."
The same interpreter walked the group down the Duke of Gloucester
Street.
As they passed the King' s Arms Tavern, one of the little
girls
said " I
thought
it was
the Queen' s Legs
On another occasion a sch "o1 group,
Historic
Area,
summarize
the
assembled
days
behind
Tavern."
after spending- a day in the
the Powell -Waller
house
to
activities.
The interpreter asked the group
One
to tell her what they had learned during their visit.
youngster responded by saying. " I learned not to push."
At the Palace a little girl was asked by the butler to check the
list
in
was
a
the
better
Another
the
deal
little
Governor at
to
cider vault.
He
offered
her
6
pence
to
perform
this
The little girl responded by saying she had $ 4. 00 which
task.
the
footman
than
he
had
to
girl volunteered
Palace.
and
said, "
offer.
to present
the petition
to
the
When the moment arrived she stepped up
I
have
a
proposition
for
you."
�Conversation Elsewhere:
Greenfield Village,
of
the
imported
homes
Michigan -
and workplaces
In part,
of
famous
an
impressive
Americans:
collection
the Wright'
brothers shop, Thomas Edison' s Menlo Park laboratory, Ford' s homestead.
Mother says to her family, " Imagine, so many famous Americans coming
from
the
same
town!"
M
E R R
Y
C H R
I
S
T M A
S
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 4, 1983
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/e49a3120b3b81cb2f5732635b89dec63.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=WfHPYoacwBhVYkqXrMHyhMYpS%7ERWVL%7EbbkCj7oAiUullpqotL9Zoz99mM0X1meY4lnOWi9hs8JzO2NeFywo4D5vBc06fdJncA69VA9kxMWHtCwWUI-MYWi51JiDRX-iyZE4V%7EJUpTgBQbbE%7EVNUKxs6%7EMc0koiWDeME9KY2uFX8SXLThTOpIglj7pQHJJJE7uafKMOIbJ-ZQGX0D9bwkVergAMdSnDVsWZCunzCRdZU7eSPBGwkP0acT0u%7E9DTA5z4OyYMFfDBm9xLuy8uXKAIxk7NYb-tJik67OsiHRZkHmsj4FDDjlmzsTJMgDWFCb0b-g5uL2gwdouvvJMh81UA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
1c5a70778d166e8875c4b65b03e8a817
PDF Text
Text
uestions
VOL.
3,
No.
8Z,
Answers
1
February 1982
Today we are all challenged to find better ways to use and conserve our
sources.
Our visitors are very interested in learning how people
energy
living in the eighteenth century provided heat and light for their homes in
the cold and darkness of a bitter winter.
Using the artifacts around us we
can re- create in the imagination of our visitors the contrast between cold
and heat and darkness and light, and the importance of " fire" in the lives
of all men and women who lived
in the colonial period.
We hope that the answers to the following questions about colonial
energy use provided by Harold Gill of the Research Department will help you
in your
interpretations.
Where would most of the Williamsburg residents have gotten their fire-
EN RGY
wood? -
Wood dealers who owned land around town supplied townspeople with their
firewood.
The Burwells of Carter' s Grove sold many loads of wood.
The
following newspaper advertisement ( dated December 1774) sums up the situation:
For sale 400 acres in York County, 4 miles from town with " as much Timber as
may pay for it in one Year, by selling Wood to the Inhabitants of Williams-
SOURCES
IN
burg."
Can it be estimated how many cords of wood would have been used to
maintain a fire in a family kitchen during a year?
We can make only a very rough estimate- - about fifty cart loads a year
a cart
Press)
load a week).
p.
61.
For a vivid contrast, see Fithian' s Diary, (
U. Va.
Are there any references to the scarcity of firewood in the Williamsburg area during the eighteenth century?
We can find no references stating that firewood was scarce in the
Williamsburg area,
but the implication of leases ( see answer # 4)
and other
EIGHTNCENTURY
documents is that colonial Virginians were concerned about the supply and
worked toward conserving it.
Is there any evidence that there were attempts to conserve wood and / or
plant
new
Yes,
trees?
leases for property often stipulated that the timber was not to
be cut.
Other than the Palace and Capitol, do we know of other buildings using
coal before
the Revolution?
The College and many private houses in Williamsburg burned coal.
We
know this from advertisements for " chamber coal" and iron grates.
Such
homes as the Peyton Randolph House and John Carter' s half of the brick duplex
on Duke of Gloucester Street were equipped with coal grates and coal houses.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
WILAMSBURG
�What price did Governor Botetourt pay for a bushel or ton of coal?
10
pence per bushel.
From whom did he purchase
the
coal
for
the Palace?
Botetourt bought coal from Anthony Hay, who was supplied by Norfolk merchant
Neil Jamieson, and from George Wythe, who was probably acting as agent for someone
else.
How did the price of coal
compare with the price of
charcoal or wood?
Charcoal cost between sixpence and 71 pence per bushel; coal, 10 pence
per bushel.
It is impossible to make a comparison of these with wood, which
The Burwells of Carter' s Grove supplied
was usually sold by the cart load.
wood to Williamsburg residents at prices ranging from 71 pence per load to
6
shillings per
load.
some people provided
The price variation may have resulted from the fact that
their own cartage and
the more expensive was
delivered.
The size of the vehicle may have varied as well.
From whom did Governor Botetourt purchase his charcoal and wood?
We do not know who sold charcoal for use in the Palace kitchen.
In
1769
Botetourt bought some wood from the estate of Philip Ludwell. Most wood for
The Palace account
the Palace fireplaces probably came from the Palace Lands.
book from Badminton detailing " work Done with the Cart" shows many days' labor
in " hawling Wood from the Park."
Were there any laws in Williamsburg during the colonial period that
attempted to regulate fire safety especially in the taverns?
The article on the Fire Engine in The Interpreter for January 1982
discusses all known fire regulations for Williamsburg.
Nothing specifically
about taverns is mentioned in extant city ordinances.
Was
fire
insurance available?
Fire insurance was available
from English companies.
We know of policyThe Mutual Assurance Society of
Virginia was not established until 1795, and the earliest policies for
Williamsburg properties are dated 1796- - well outside the colonial period.
holders in Norfolk but not in Williamsburg.
Was there a chandler in Williamsburg or were candles made at home?
Not only was there a chandler in Williamsburg but imported candles were
The Burwells of Carter' s Grove purchased candles
sold in many local stores.
from both merchants and local chandlers.
Some
people,
no
doubt,
made
candles
at home, but judging from candle -making equipment appearing in personal estate
inventories, the practice was certainly not regularly carried on in most homes.
Erratum:
In response to- Peter -Ross' s question concerning our statement
about locksmiths in Williamsburg, we should have said that in addition to
repairing locks,
there were also blacksmiths who made locks.
�8Z,
Questions
VOL.
3,
No,
This
Answers
April 1982
2
issue of
Questions
and Answers
addresses
some of
your
questions
Today,
court procedures and eighteenth- century crime and punishment.
as at any time in history, the crimes committed and the punishment estabHarold
lished give great insights into the values held by that society.
about
Gill has provided all
of
the answers
for
this issue.
Please define the following legal terms.
Benefit of clergy, No benefit of clergy
In its original sense,
exemption accorded
benefit of clergy denoted the
to clergymen from the jurisdiction of secular
Afterward
from arrest or attachment on criminal process.
courts
or
it meant a
privilege of exemption from the punishment of death accorded to such persons
as
were
clerks (
all
who
could
This
read).
exemption from capital
punish-
ment was anciently allowed to clergymen only but afterwards to all who were
connected with
later
not
the
church,
time to all who
appear
even
to
its most
subordinate
officers;
at
to have been
extended
to
cases
of
high treason nor
a
It
could read whether ecclesiastics or laymen.
still
does
to mere
misdemeanors.
The privilege was claimed after the person' s conviction by a
As a means of testing his
motion technically called " praying his clergy."
clerical character, he was given a psalm to read ( usually - or always - -the
fifty- first) and, upon reading it correctly, he was turned over to ecclesiThey
astical courts to be tried by the bishop or a jury of twelve clerks.
heard him and his witnesses on oath.
This privilege greatly mitigated the
of
criminal
laws but was
Parliament began
extreme rigor
to enact
that
benefit of clergy,"
George
IV.
found
to
certain crimes
involve
such abuses
and finally it was altogether abolished in the reign of
The United
States Congress
in 1790
enacted
that
there should be
no benefit of clergy for any capital crime against the U. S.,
privilege
formed
Revolution,
a part of
it no
that
should be felonies " without
longer
Prisoners
the
common
law of
the
and
states before
if
this
the
exists.
convicted of
certain crimes
in Virginia were
allowed to claim benefit of clergy.
The right to claim benefit of clergy
was
of
not
allowed
to
persons
convicted
horse - stealing, burglary, or robbery.
women,
Negroes,
requirement
mulattoes,
was
and Indians.
willful
In
1732
murder,
rape,
the right was
treason,
extended
arson,
to
At the same time the reading
eliminated.
Those who were granted benefit of clergy were burnt in the
hand - - that
was
is,
convicted
self -defense,
felonies
branded on
of
the " Brawn of
a homicide
etc.),
he was
other
the
left
Thumb."
If
a
prisoner
than willful murder ( manslaughter,
branded with the letter M.
For all
other
the letter T was used.
The brand served as an identifying mark
because a person was allowed benefit of clergy only one time.
The granting
of benefit of clergy restored all citizenship rights to the prisoner.
Black' s Law Dictionary)
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�Please define the following legal terms ( continued)
Corruption of the blood,
No corruption of the blood
In English law corruption of
the blood was
the consequence
of
attainder, specifically that the attainted person could not inherit lands
or anything else from his ancestor nor could he retain those he already had
Attainder is the extinction of civil rights
or transmit them to any heir.
and capacities
that
took place whenever a person who has committed
treason
or a felony received the death sentence,
In Virginia the laws concerning felony offenses did not allow
attainder to corrupt the blood or cause forfeiture of estates.
According to
Black' s Law Dictionary, corruption of the blood is unknown in America.
Ears nailed to the pillory
This was presumably the punishment to habitual offenders for
This form of punishment was effective in two ways;
relatively minor offenses.
first, by causing the offender to be publicly humiliated while standing at
the pillory, and second by leaving lasting scars. ( By the way, there were
cases of people coming to court for certification that they were not habitual
offenders but that their ears were scarred in another way,
such as by an accident.)
Sentenced to hang or to starvation or pressing
other
serious
Hanging was the sentence for murder, robbery, housebreaking, and
Starvation and pressing were not legal punishments in
crimes.
Virginia.
Where was the phrase " pass before
under what circumstances was
The
term bar has more
partition separated
the
the bar"
than one legal
seats
first used in a legal
sense and
it used?
of
the
usage.
In the Inns
readers ( instructors)
of Court,
from the
rest
a
of
the
hall.
Students, after they had attained a certain standing, were called from
the body of the hall to take a principal part in the exercises of the house.
Hence
to
the
cast
phrases " to
over
the
be called
bar" (
to
to disbar
the
or
bar" (
deprive
to be
of
the
admitted a barrister)
status
of
and
a barrister).
The bar also refers to the barrier or wooden rail marking off the immediate
precinct of
trial,
or
at bar ",
the
the judge' s
sentence.
i. e.,
in
seat at which prisoners
This bar
court,
soon became
in open court. "
are stationed
synonymous with
Trial at bar"
full court in which an action or indictment
for
court
meant
arraignment,
as
a
in the phrase
trial before
is brought.
If a white man of property had been convicted of a felony in the eighteenth
century, did he lose his voting rights?
If a person was convicted of a felony, he was usually executed if he was
If he was pardoned or
not pardoned or was not granted benefit of clergy.
granted benefit of clergy his civil rights were fully restored.
�How were blacks tried if they committed a crime?
If a slave committed a capital crime,
that is, a crime punishable by
death, he was tried before a county court of Oyer and Terminer specially
appointed by the governor.
This court had the power to set the punishment
and carry it out.
If a slave committed a crime punishable by corporal
punishment, he was tried before the regular county court.
How did they punish unmarried pregnant women?
In 1661 -1662 a law fixed the fine for ( unmarried) males and females
found guilty of fornication, proved by confession or oaths of two witnesses,
at 500 pounds of tobacco.
in their parish churches.
They were sometimes required to do public penance
When an offender was a servant,
the 500 pounds of
tobacco was paid by his or her master, and the servant remained in servitude
six months beyond the original term of service.
If the master refused to
pay the fine, the servant was whipped.
Fines were double if fornication
with a black or mulatto was proven.
The 1661 -1662 laws do not mention penalties for free women who bore
illegitimate children.
However, the presence of such a child would of course
be proof of fornication.
In the case of a servant woman giving birth to a
bastard child, the law of 1661 -1662 was quite clear,
She was to pay her
master 2000 pounds of tobacco OR serve her master two years beyond her regular
term.
Since few servants would have been able to pay such a sum, the penalty
was usually the additional years in servitude.
0
After 1696 the penalty was
reduced to 1000 pounds of tobacco or one year extra service.
These penalties
were designed to compensate the master for his trouble and expense and the
servant woman' s lost work time.
The 1696 law noted that a free woman who bore an illegitimate child
fathered by a black or mulatto had to pay 15 pounds to the parish in which
the child was born or be sold herself into five years' service by the parish.
It is important to note that the father ( if named) of the bastard child
was responsible for the upkeep of the child.
If he was a free man, he was
to save the parish in which the child was born any expense of caring for the
child.
If he was a servant, he was to make satisfaction to the parish for
the expense of caring for the child after completion of his term of service.
When a servant woman' s master was proved to be the father, he was required to
pay for the upkeep of the child and was not entitled to the two years' extra
service from her. (
Instead, her two years'
extra service was sold to someone
else.)
A law of 1727 spelled out specific penalties for free women who bore
illegitimate children.
or received 25
They were fined 500 pounds of tobacco or 50 shillings
lashes.
This was reduced in 1769 to 20 shillings and there was
no whipping even if the woman failed to pay the fine.
If we can draw conclusions about the values of a society o its moral
standards from its laws, ther we might say that the society of olonial
Virginia was more concerned about keeping illegitimate offspring off the
welfare rolls" than in punishing people for promiscuous sexual behavior.
However, values.
legislation alone does not reflect, except in the most general way,
personal
�For what crimes might " ducking" be used in both the seventeenth and
eighteenth
centuries?
Though the county courts were authorized by law to construct ducking
not dunking) stools if they saw fit, apparently very few offenses were
In fact, research has uncovered only one such offense
punishable by ducking.
so far. "
Whereas oftentimes many• brabling ( quarrelsome) women often slander
and
scandalize
into
their neighbours for which their poore husbands are often brought
chargeable and
vexatious
suites .
after judgment passes
for damages
the women shalbe punished by ducking" if their husbands refused to pay the
Incidences of actual duckings in Virginia are
damages to the injured party.
extremely rare.
What was the punishment for overpricing in the taverns?
punishment apply to the tavern keeper or the owner?
Did
the
When an ordinary license was granted, the tavern keeper had to post a
If found guilty of overcharging, the tavern keeper ( who was not
We know of no
necessarily the owner of the property) forfeited the bond.
example of forfeiture for overcharging in colonial Virginia.
bond.
�Questions (
VOL.
3,
No.
N , Answers
3
June
1982
We hope this potpourri of questions and answers will increase your
knowledge and enrich your interpretations.
Harold Gill has provided the
answers
to
your
questions.
Please remember to send any questions you have to Jane Strauss.
How did Virginians cope with the insect problem?
Window screens were not unknown in Virginia and there are references
people owning them.
to
Mosquito netting was often used on bedsteads and there
are formulas for ridding beds of bedbugs.
But,
for the most part,
it seems
r
C7 •tJ
7C O
cn
that insects were tolerated with patience.
co
C7 7=
Was George Wythe more interested in the federal government than state
government
after
m
the Revolution?
rn co
It is difficult to determine, but Wythe was definitely interested in the
federal government since he took part in the Constitutional Convention of
1787
O G7
O
rn
I 70
O
Was he ever approached for appointment to a federal office?
CM r
Wythe was considered for - but not actually offered - - post in
a
r
Washington' s administration.
Washington considered Edmund Pendleton and
George Wythe among the top five prospects as federal judge of the U. S.
district that included all of Virginia.
President Washington decided
0 3:
-
O r*7
it
would not be tactful to make Wythe a belated offer others had refused.
Cyrus Griffin received the appointment.
cnr_
Cn
nr =
a
55
Was Thomas Everard a trained or practicing lawyer or was he simply
familiar with the law?
Cr
There is no evidence that Everard was a practicing lawyer.
He was
obviously familiar with the law through his office as clerk of the York
County court.
What role did free black males have in the political process in Virginia
in the eighteenth century? Could they vote if they owned property and were
they legally available for election?
Free black males - -even if they were property owners -- played no part in
the
political
process.
They were specifically eliminated in legislation
about voting and office —
holding.
When were pencils
N
first
used?
Pencils have been in fairly wide use since the early seventeenth century,
The Oxford English Dictionary gives the earliest written reference to pencils
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
r-^
CVCV
�as
1612. "
1775
and
Black Lead Pencils" were advertised for sale in Williamsburg in
earlier.
Can it be determined how much John Page paid yearly for his room at
Wetherburn' s
than
the
Tavern?
In terms of purchasing power was it less expensive
single rate of
7s.
1 / 2d.?
We have no information on what rate Page paid for his private room and
no way of comparing it to the single -night rate.
It may have cost him more
than the usual rate if he had many requirements as to furnishi^ s service,
On the other hand,
etc.
if he provided his own furniture,
servant( s),
etc.,
the room may have cost very little on a yearly basis.
What was the difference between apothecary and physician?
In England
degree),
Physicians, whatever their formal training ( usually a university
were addressed as " doctor" and practiced among the upper classes.
They treated most illnesses but were not really general practitioners.
As
gentlemen and scholars they did not work with their hands as surgeons did, or
engage in a trade as
apothecaries
did.
Surgeons rarely held university degrees but were trained by apprenticeship or by hospital instruction.
superficial growths,
and
They dealt with anatomical emergencies,
These services were considered peri-
skin diseases.
pheral to the art of medicine, and though they were required by all classes of
people the social position of surgeons was inferior to that of physicians.
Apothecaries also lacked the social standing of physicians.
The
term " apothecary" was applied to anyone who compounded and sold medicines and
drugs.
From selling drugs it was but a short step to prescribing them.
In Virginia
From necessity the line separating the work of gentlemen from that
of tradesmen and craftsmen was not clearly defined.
Whatever their training
or lack of it) colonial practitioners were generally addressed as " doctor ".
What evidence is there that eighteenth -century Williamsburg residents
held more than one job at a time like Peter Pelham?
Was
the term " moon-
lighting" used for this practice?
Many Williamsburg residents were involved in more than one enterprise
but they did not " moonlight" as we think of it -work two jobs for wages;
moonlighting" in this sense is not an eighteenth- century expression). Men
such as Alexander Craig, who was in the harness making business and also owned
and operated a tannery,
were entrepreneurs.
Where and how was tar for " pitch and tar" obtained?
After pine trees had been tapped for all their turpentine, the trees
were cut down and hewn into billets ( pieces the size of firewood).
The billets
burned in an oven -like arrangement of soil and tiles. As the billets burned,
the tar was released and drained off through a hole at the bottom of the oven.
According to a 1798 encyclopedia, pine tar was prepared " in great quantities
in Norway, Sweden, Germany, Russia, and North America, and in other countries
where the pine and fir abound."
�Was rice grown
in this area?
Could
the
roots of
the
rice
plant be used
as scrubbers in dish washing?
There
is
no
evidence
that
rice was
grown on
a
commercial
However,
scale
one
in
the
soldier
vicinity of Williamsburg in the eighteenth century.
reported during the Revolution that he was rice growing at Burwell' s Mill
near Williamsburg.
However, this man had never seen rice growing before, and
We have no information
he may have been mistaken.
plant being used as scrubbers in dish washing.
about
the
roots
of
the rice
What is the figure on top of the coat of arms in the College Chapel and
what
does
it
symbolize?
The figure is a griffin ( also spelled gryphon),
the wings,
of
a
lion.
head,
front legs,
The griffin
and
talons
symbolizes
of an eagle,
the union
of
Were there street cleaners in Williamsburg?
them
and
paid
their
a fantastic
animal with
and
the
tail
strength
and
swiftness.
If
there were,
and hind
who
wages?
There were no street cleaners in Williamsburg so far as we know.
legs
employed
�Questions
VOL.
3,
No.
Answers
4SZ,
August
4
In January 1983,
the CORE CURRICULUM
1982
the Department of Interpretive Education will initiate
for
all Historic Area
This
interpretive staff.
issue
of Q' s and A' s will address some Q' s you may have about the CORE CURRICULUM.
The September issue of The Interpreter will further describe the program.
What
is
the CORE CURRICULUM?
Presently the CORE CURRICULUM organizes a division wide program of
BASIC COURSES and ADVANCED COURSES concerned with historical content and
with
interpretive techniques
BASIC COURSES
for
the
presentation of
that
In
content.
the
interpreters acquire a foundation of knowledge upon which to
BASIC COURSES focus on general
proceed through the program.
build as they
areas; ADVANCED COURSES focus on specialized topics building on the BASIC
COURSES.
This
divisional in- service curriculum,
together with a three hour
Foundation Up -Date, will be provided for all interpreters in January and
February 1983.
How does the CORE CURRICULUM apply to your work as an interpreter?
a.
The two -year program of BASIC COURSES will provide historical
information and assistance with presentation skills
for all interpreters
who have been hired since January 1980.
All other interpreters may choose
to take the BASIC COURSES of study or select a set of three of the ADVANCED
COURSES described in 2. b. (
Tapes of the BASIC COURSES will be available
to all interpreters after February 1983 through the Department of Interpretive Education
methods,
office.)
there will be
In
addition
to
a brief
discussion
three main courses
offered
in
on
each year
interpretive
of
the
two
Interpreters hired after January 1980 will
be eligible for the elective curriculum once they have completed the BASIC
year
program
of BASIC
COURSES.
COURSES.
The BASIC
COURSES
are:
1983 Courses
1984
Virginia Society in Profile
Folkways:
Courses
Everyday Behaviour and
Occasional Customs in Colonial Va.
The Growth of Virginia' s
Pre -Industrial Economy
Evolution of Government in Colonial Va.
Fine Things /Plain Things:
The Revolution in Virginia and Its
Virginia' s Material
Interpretive Methods
b.
Culture
Aftermath
Interpretive Methods
Interpreters hired before January 1980 not choosing the BASIC
COURSES will take a set of ADVANCED COURSES.
These
interpreters will be
asked to indicate their preferences from the following 1983 offerings:
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�2-
1983 ADVANCED
COURSES:
SET A
SET E
Learning from the York County Project
Household Economy
Architecture:
Social Spaces
Women in Virginia Society
Household Economy
Learning from the York County Project
SET
SET B
F
Women in Virginia Society
Women in Virginia Society
Household Economy
Period Clothing
Afro Americans
Architecture:
SET C
SET G
Period Clothing
Household Economy
Agricultural History of the Chesapeake
SET
Social Spaces
D
Learning from the York County Project
Period Clothing
Williamsburg' s Buildings and Designers
SET H
Afro Americans
Learning from the York County Project
Agricultural History of the Chesapeake
Agricultural History of the Chesapeake
Williamsburg' s Buildings and Designers
Afro -Americans
The 1983 offerings have been developed primarily in response to the March 1982
survey you completed.
What are the plans
In years
to come,
for future programs
in the CORE CURRICULUM?
in addition to more advanced courses,
other options
of
study may be available to interpreters with extensive interpretive experience
here.
These may include independent study, seminars, and focused tours of other
museums.
We anticipate that this phase of the program most likely will be
introduced in 1984.
Who are the members of the teaching faculty?
Faculty members have been chosen according to their knowledge and expertise
from the staff of Colonial Williamsburg and The College of William and Mary.
This year' s faculty will be introduced in the 1983 catalogue,
How have interpreters helped the teaching faculty prepare their courses?
The BASIC COURSE faculty invited interpreters to participate in lunchtime
Approximately fifty interpreters joined in
discussions to talk about their work.
these discussions.
Faculty members are also observing interpreters at work to
understand more fully the scope of the job and the pressures and demands placed
upon interpreters.
�3-
How will the courses of the CORE CURRICULUM be structured?
Both the BASIC COURSES
and ADVANCED
COURSES will consist of class
Brief course
lectures, discussions, readings, and application sessions. (
outlines and bibliographies will be available after the September issue
of The Interpreter.
There will be
an assessment
at the
end of
each
course,
followed by a two -week period called the practicum during which interpreters
practice
on- the -job
application
of
the
course material.
The practicum
follow -up will conclude with small group discussions within each interpretive
department.
When will interpreters learn more about the courses offered?
The catalogue of the CORE CURRICULUM,
and
course descriptions,
as will
general policy
will
appear in the
statements
regarding
listing courses offered, faculty,
September
issue
attendance,
of The
Interpreter,
assessments,
etc.
It
will include your registration form and further instructions for enrollment.
If you have any additional questions about the CORE CURRICULUM, please
contact your Master Teacher or any other representative of the Department of
Interpretive Education.
The Core Curriculum Committee
Museum Staff to Visit in November
In November we anticipate about 35 interpreters to be visiting Colonial
These interpreters are from Greenfield Village
Williamsburg for several days.
The purpose of their visit is to watch interpretation
and the Henry Ford Museum.
at Colonial Williamsburg and to get to know members of our interpretive staff.
Would you have any interest in " putting -up" an interpreter in your home for
several
days?
It could be quite a stimulating experience.
If you are,
we will
try to match you with interpreters who share your interests.
be receiving a list of these people.
By October we should
All we need to know now is whether you
might be interested in hearing more about this opportunity.
one social event
to which you and your " foster"
Please call Bill Tramposch ( ext.
2711)
We do plan at least
interpreter would be invited.
if you are interested.
�8Z,
Questions
VOL.
3,
No.
Answers
October
5
1982
We hope these short professional profiles of the faculty members for
the CORE CURRICULUM and CWF Update will acquaint you with their professional
training and experience as well as with their special areas of interest.
Linda R.
Ms.
Baumgarten:
Curator
0)btmcL
mX
zC7
of Textiles
Baumgarten is responsible for the research,
cataloging,
conservation,
and collecting of textiles and costumes for the department of collections.
She received her B. S. and M. S. from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in
textile related arts and her M. A. in Early American Culture in the Winterthur
Program from the University of Delaware.
Curator of Textiles in 1978 Ms.
at
the Valentine Museum,
Peter V.
Bergstrom:
Before assuming her position as
Baumgarten was Associate Curator of Textiles
She has published articles
Richmond.
Research Fellow and Adjunct Lecturer at
on textiles.
the College of
William and Mary.
As a research fellow, Mr.
Bergstrom is
in charge of codification and
quantification of the York County Biographical Data Bank and Project Manager
He received
of the York County Tract Map and Plantation Management Study.
his A. B. in 1970, his M. A. in 1972 from Marquette University, and his Ph. D.
His graduate work reflects
in 1980 from the University of New Hampshire.
his interest in religion in the colony of Maryland ( a demographic study) and
the markets and merchants of colonial Virginia,
Reginald D.
Butler:
As a research fellow, Mr.
Butler is responsible for the training of
He received his B. A.
from Western Washington State University
Mr. Butler is
in 1968 and his M. A. at Johns Hopkins University in 1981.
currently a Ph. D. candidate in history at Johns Hopkins University. From
1980 -1981 he was a Smithsonian Institution Fellow in Early American History.
Ed Chappell:
Mr.
Director,
Architectural
Research
Chappell is responsible for the research and training related to
architecture and landscape at Colonial Williamsburg and for the conservation
and architectural research of
the Historic Area.
He received his
B. A.
in
history from the College of William and Mary and his M. A. in architectural
history from the University of Virginia. Mr, Chappell' s museum experience
has been as Architectural Historian of the Kentucky Heritage Commission and
as Archaeologist
of
VITAE
FOR
CORE
Research Fellow
interpreters in black history and for the preparation of an Afro -American
sourcebook.
INSTRUCO'
the Virginia Historic Landmarks
publications reflect his
interests
Commission.
His
in historical architecture.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
CURILM
AND
CWF
UPDATE
�Patricia A.
Research Assistant
Gibbs:
Ms. Gibbs conducts research on topics of current and future interest
She received
for the research department while teaching classes for HAPO.
her B. A. from Guilford College in 1963 and her M. A. from the College of
Ms. Gibbs has been with CWF since 1965, where she
William and Mary in 1968.
was first a historic sites apprentice and later a hostess before assuming
her present position in 1968.
and domestic life.
Harold B.
Gill,
Her
special
interests
are
colonial
taverns
Historian
Jr.:
As historian Mr.
Gill is the head of the projects office at CWF' s
He is also deeply involved in historical research
Gill received his A. B. and A. M. at the College of William
research department.
and writing.
Mr.
and Mary before doing graduate work at Howard University and the Newberry
Library Institute on Quantitative History. He has worked as a historian for
CWF for twenty years and during this time he has published several books and
many articles concerning his varied interests in the agricultural, crafts,
and the economy of colonial Virginia.
John M.
Hemphill
II:
Research Fellow
As a research fellow, Mr. Hemphill is researching and writing a book - length
manuscript on the royal governors of eighteenth- century Virginia.
his A. B.
He
received
in history from Johns Hopkins University in 1948 and his M. A.
at Princeton University in 1950.
Scholar at Kings College, London.
in history
From 1954 - 1956 Mr. Hemphill was a Fullbright
In 1964 he received his Ph. D. from Princeton
University, where he wrote his dissertation on Virginia and the English
Mr. Hemphill' s museum experience has been with
Commercial System, 1689 - 1733.
CWF from 1952 -1954 and 1956 - 1958 as a research associate, and since 1979 as
a research fellow.
colonial
His publications represent his interests in the history of
Virginia.
Kevin Peter Kelly:
Research Associate
Mr. Kelly is now the historian and the projects manager of the " York County
Project" as well as the researcher and teacher of colonial social history.
He
attended Michigan State University, where he received his B. A. in 1965 and his
M. A.
in 1966,
and later, in 1972, he received his Ph. D. from the University of
From 1973 - 1975 Mr, Kelly was a fellow at the Institute of Early
American History and Culture and an assistant professor of history at the College
From 1975 - 1977 he was an assistant professor of history
of William and Mary.
at Bowdoin College before assuming his duties with CWF' s research department
Washington.
in 1977.
His publication is concerned with seventeenth - century settlement
patterns in Surry County.
�Fellow at the Institute of Early American History and
Philip David Morgan:
Culture
Mr. Morgan received his B. A. at Cambridge University, England,
His
numerous
publications
and his
reflect
Ph. D. from University College, London.
his interest in the life, work and culture of blacks in the colonial south,
Sumpter T.
Teaching Curator
Priddy III:
As teaching curator Mr. Priddy brings to all interpreters his knowledge
He received his B. A.
of eighteenth- century material culture.
in the History
of Architecture at the University of Virginia in 1975 and his M. A. in Early
Before assuming his
American Culture at the University of Delaware in 1981.
present position he was first curatorial intern in CWF' s Department of
Collections and the Curator of Exhibition Buildings from 1979 - 81.
Mr. Priddy' s
publications reflect his interest in material objects and their historical
significance.
Robert C.
Mr.
Birney:
Senior Vice President for Education,
Preservation,
and Research
Birney, as Senior Vice President for Education, Preservation and
Research, has responsibility for the overall supervision of the Historic Area
Programs and Operations Division as well as managerial responsibility for the
performance of the departments of archaeology, architecture, archives and records,
Before joining the Colonial Williamsburg
Foundation as director of planning in June 1978, Mr. Birney was vice president
audiovisual,
publications,
and
research.
of Hampshire College in Amherst,
Massachussetts,
1968 - 1978,
where he was
From 1954
directly involved in the planning and development of the college.
Mr. Birney received his B. A.
to 1968, he taught psychology at Amherst College.
from Wesleyan University in 1950 and his masters and doctoral degrees in
psychology at the University of Michigan,
Dennis A.
Vice President of Historic Area Programs and Operations
O' Toole:
When Mr.
O' Toole became vice president of Historic Area Programs
Operations in April 1982,
and other operations and
and
he became responsible for all interpretive programming
services in the Historic Area and at
Carter' s Grove.
He
joined the CWF staff in January 1979 as director of Group Visits and Educational
Programs and then,
in May 1979,
became deputy director of Historic Area Programs
Mr. O' Toole is a graduate of Princeton University, and he holds
from Harvard University and a Ph. D. from Brown University in American
and Operations.
a M. A. T.
colonial history.
school
and
He has had varied teaching experiences both at the high
college level and has
historical agencies.
acted
as
From 1972 -1978 Mr.
a
consultant
to
several museums and
O' Toole was curator of education at
the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution.
�John Selby:
Professor of History, The College of William and Mary
In addition to teaching and doing research, Mr.
Selby is a regular
He received his
lecturer on the colonial period for our interpreters.
A. B.
from Harvard College in 1950,
his M. A.
in history in 1951,
and his
Ph. D. in history from Brown University. Mr. Selby taught history at the
University of Oregon in 1955 - 1961 before coming to CWF as assistant director
of research.
In 1966 he joined the history department at the College of
William and Mary and became acting editor of The William and Mary Quarterly.
Mr. Selby has published widely on the colonial period.
Gail S.
Assistant Research Archivist
Terry:
Ms. Tarry _ s involved n the physical maintenance of the nhlant; .. s
of the research archives as well as assisting people who wish to use them.
She received her B. A.
in history at the University of Tennessee in 1978,
and she is currently working on her M. A.
in history at the University of
Maryland.
Lorena Leeback Walsh:
Ms.
Research Fellow
Walsh' s task as a research fellow is to write a book -length study of
plantation management
in the colonial period.
Marietta College in 1966,
her M. A.
She received her B. A.
in 1967 and Ph. D.
in 1977,
from
both from Michigan
State University.
Ms. Walsh has been a research associate at the St. Mary' s
City Commission from 1972 -1980 in addition to being consulting historian for
Historic Annapolis,
Maryland,
She has published widely and her articles
demonstrate her interest in the settlers and their way of life in Maryland
during the colonial period.
Mark R.
Mr.
Wenger:
Research Architect
Wenger conducts research and writes reports on designated architectural
research projects while providing information to other departments and
He received a Bachelor of
researching buildings in the Historic Area.
Environmental Design at North Carolina State University in 1975, a Bachelor
of Architecture at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte in 1977, and
a Masters of Architectural History at the University of Virginia in 1980.
Mr.
Wenger has been at CWF since 1980.
He has published
an article on
the
Governor' s Palace.
John Colin Moon:
Director of the Company of Colonial Performers
When appointed the director of the Company of Colonial Performers in 1980,
Mr. Moon became responsible for the programs of theatrical history, eighteenth century entertainment, and student music and dance while retaining his former
responsibilities for the Fife and Drum Corps,
Militia, and the Magazine and the Guardhouse.
Mr. Moon joined Her Majesty' s Scots Guards,
the Music Teachers Room,
From
the age of
fifteen,
the
when
he pursued his interest in music
and drill and field training while serving with distinction in the British Army.
In 1962 he was appointed Senior Drum Major of the Brigade of Guards and the
British Army.
For your
information:
The Association of State and Local History ( AASLH) offers a number of
seminars and courses each year that may be of great interest to you as
interpreters.
your
Margie Weiler in the Norton -Cole House has the catalogue for
investigation.
�8Z,
Questions
VOL.
3,
No.
Answers
December 1982
6
1983 New Year' s Resolution Issue:
Let' s dismiss ( dismyth ?) this old year with a resolution for
the new.
Although our interpretations are impressively myth- and rumor -free, let' s
resolve to stamp -out those little hobgoblins of innaccuracy who still
confront us on our roads to more reliable interpretations.
1.
RUMOR HAS
IT
THAT . . .
people were shorter in the eighteenth century.
The
short
antique
beds prove it.
Records
People were not significantly shorter in the eighteenth century.
indicate that soldiers ( white males) during the Revolution averaged only
The antique beds
63 inches shorter than any recruits in 1957 and 1958.
are actually about six feet long, the same as modern standard size beds.
For example,
a random sample of beds in exhibition buildings shows that
none is shorter than 74 "( 6' 2 "),
and some are as long as 801 ".
ceilings
and
most are several inches longer than that,
They appear shorter because of high
tall bedsteads.
S
2,
RUMOR HAS
IT
THAT . . .
for sanitary reasons,
a bit of the stem was broken off pipes before
they were reused.
Archaeologists find many pipestem fragments because pipes are easily
broken.
to
3.
There is no
make
a
clean
RUMOR HAS
evidence that smokers broke off the end of the stem
mouthpiece.
They weren' t aware of " germs"
anyway.
IT THAT . . .
Williamsburg has so many one and a half -story houses because there
was a tax on two - story houses.
There were no taxes on buildings during the colonial period, so this does
not explain the existence of story- and -a -half houses in Williamsburg.
These simply follow the pattern of the vast majority of houses in
colonial
Virginia.
They are single -story houses with finished attics
for' additional living space.
4.
RUMOR HAS
IT
THAT . . .
glazed headers tell us that a building dates from the early
eighteenth century because after 1750 there was a law against burning
hardwoods.
Hardwood was
required
to make
a fire hot
enough
to glaze
brick.
There was no colonial Virginia law against burning hardwoods.
5.
RUMOR HAS
IT
THAT . . .
mirrors came
pieces
of
in two pieces because a tax was placed on larger
glass.
The old story about a tax on large pieces of glass appears to be
Harold Gill has determined that no
completely without foundation.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�such law existed in Virginia; and in England every attempt was made to
encourage manufacturing in the eighteenth century, not to hamper it. Also,
if one compares very large, two -piece looking glasses with smaller examples
of the same form, the larger will often have a single unit containing more
surface
area
than that of
the
combined surfaces
of
the
smaller ones.
According to Sumpter Priddy, ABaroque looking glasses ( those of the so- called
William and Mary" and " Queen Anne" styles), the top of the upper mirror
often has arches and curves cut to conform to the shape of the molded frame.
As a rule,
the glass is also bevelled around these edges.
The grinding of
the bevels around the curves and edges would be much easier to achieve on a
smaller piece of glass than on a larger one.
Additionally, if it broke
during grinding, a smaller and thus cheaper piece was lost. This theory
is supported by the fact that most glasses of plain, rectilinear form are
made of
6.
a
classic
examples.
RUMOR HAS
single piece - and
IT
this
includes most Rococo
and
almost
all neo-
THAT . . .
a French traveler remarked that in bad weather,
the Duke of Gloucester
Street was a mile long and a mile deep.
In Jane Carson' s We Were There, Descriptions of Williamsburg, 1699 -1859,
none of the travelers describes the Duke of Gloucester Street ( or main street)
Several of them talk about the unpaved main
as a mile long and a mile deep.
street;
that it is deep with sand;
aggravating in summer because of the dust,
sand, and heat; one mentions that the main street is " sloppy" during a rainy
period.
7.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
Thomas Jefferson jogged up and down the Duke of Gloucester Street.
Jefferson clearly believed that exercise was beneficial to the health.
letters to his wife and to Peter Carr he recommended it highly. "
is the best possible exercise,"
and others of that nature,
character
too
on
the
violent,"
mind."
he
told Carr. "
In
Walking
Games played with the ball
are too violent for the body and stamp no
Whether he felt that " jogging" or running were
we don' t know.
Jefferson recommended that Carr walk in the
afternoons and said that half an hour' s walk in the morning was also
beneficial.
One may well have seen Jefferson walking for exercise in
Williamsburg when here as a student and later in his various governmental
capacities.
But " jogging up and down the Duke," probably not.
8.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT .
Thomas Jefferson wrote that the Palace Green was planted with catalpa
trees.
On his drawing of the Palace ( circa 1779),
of trees 100f.
apart"
on Palace Street.
Thomas Jefferson noted the " rows
He does not mention the type of
tree.
These were doubtless the trees that General de Lauberdiere mentioned
in his journal ( July 1782), in which he noted the " very fine palace, built
at the extremity of a handsome street planted with catalpas."
is the first statement we have that the trees were catalpas.
De Lauberdiere' s
�9.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
Pigs were free to roam the streets of Williamsburg.
By law pigs were penned to prevent their escaping from the small farms
into the streets of Williamsburg.
10.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
town criers announced the news to Williamsburg residents.
Purdie and Dixon' s Virginia Gazette for July 16, 1772, reported that the
Williamsburg Court of Common Hall had enacted a by -law
for constituting a Watch to consist of four sober and discreet
persons, who are to patrol the Streets of the City from ten
O' clock every Night till Daylight the next Morning, to cry the
Hours,
and use their best Endeavours
to preserve Peace and
good
Order, by apprehending and bringing to Justice all disorderly
People,
Slaves,
as well as others.
The watchmen were essentially policemen and firemen and only incidentally
criers"
England,
11.
of the hours.
The term " town crier" is associated with early New
not colonial Virginia.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
George Washington refused to marry Martha until she let her hair grow
longer.
There is no evidence that George Washington " refused" to marry Martha
Custis for any reason, let alone such a frivolous and meaningless reason
as
the length of her hair.
From what
we know of Washington such an action
is totally out of character.
12.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
cobblestones were used to line the streets of Williamsburg.
There is no evidence that cobblestones lined the streets of Williamsburg.
13.
RUMOR HAS
H"
IT THAT . .
panels in doors had a religious significance, meaning heaven and
hell.
Mark R. Wenger replied to this rumor by saying that he was aware of no
eighteenth century source which would
was
ascribed
to panelled doors (
i. e. - "
indicate that religious significance
H" for heaven and hell, or the
cross and Bible ").
The configuration of door joinery was, I believe,
determined by traditional methods of assembling panelled elements:
A.A.
PanelsPanels areare enclosedenclosed byby aa frameframe
composedcomposed
I
f
I
I
stiles)
stiles)
I
ofof
verticalvertical
membersmembers
andand horizontal horizontal membersmembers
rails).
rails).
B.
B.
OnOn thethe outerouter edgesedges ofof
elementelement (
(
entireentire
a III
aa panelledpanelled
whetherwhether aa door,door,
wall),
wall),
thethe
outerouter
oror
anan
stilesstiles
runrun
allall thethe wayway through.through.
C.C.
WithinWithin
thesethese outerouter stiles,
stiles,
railsrails
areare
continuous.
continuous.
Ell 01
D.
D.
InnerInner stilesstiles areare thereforetherefore brokenbroken byby
thethe
rails.
rails.
AA sixsix panelpanel
this.
this.
II
doordoor
isis aa goodgood
thinkthink itit isis bestbest
exampleexample ofof
then,
then,
notnot
toto
attributeattribute doordoor panelpanel configurations configurations toto
religiousreligious
symbolism.
symbolism.
�14.
RUMOR HAS
IT
THAT . . .
a button in the newel post indicated that the house was paid for.
As in the preceding case,
the newel appears
the tradition concerning an ivory button in
in historical documents.
Occasionally
However, in the absence of this
to have no basis
such traditions are proven to be true.
sort
of confirmation,
part
of our
we should avoid making traditional explanations
Let' s try to stick with what we can demonstrate
interpretation.
or at least infer from historical documents.
15.
RUMOR HAS
IT
THAT .
a man could legally beat his wife with a stick if it was not bigger
than his
thumb.
No law to
16.
this effect existed
RUMOR HAS
in colonial Virginia.
IT THAT . . .
Completely false.
a woman could be put in the pillory for showing her ankles.
There is no evidence whatsoever
for this.
Many illustrations dating from
the colonial period show working women wearing their hems at ankle length
or
17.
above.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT
the " refusal room"
at Carter' s Grove is so called because it was
there that Mary Cary refused George Washington' s proposal of marriage,
as
did Rebecca Burwell when Thomas
Jefferson proposed marriage.
Rather his infatuation
George Washington was never enamored of Mary Cary.
was with her sister Sally Cary Fairfax, wife of George William Fairfax,
It began in the early 1750s and continued for seven or eight years. Though
Washington seems to have been genuinely in love with her, she was married
to his
friend and neighbor.
Though they sometimes corresponded,
circumstances precluded any proposal of marriage in the so- called " refusal
room"
at
Carter' s
Grove
or
anywhere
else.
The Washingtons
and Fairfaxes
remained friends for many years.
Jefferson had a schoolboy infatuation for Rebecca Burwell of Fairfield,
Though he seems to have contemplated marrying her, he
Gloucester County.
He indicated
never actually proposed in the " refusal room" or elsewhere.
at one time that a proposal might be in the offing, but that he would ask
her
to wait for marriage until he had
Rebecca married
traveled abroad.
In the meantime
Somehow this youthful romance has
Jacquelin Ambler.
overshadowed his marriage to Martha Wayles Skelton on New Year' s Day 1772,
which Dumas Malone
18.
RUMOR HAS
says " ushered
in
the happiest
period
of his
life."
IT THAT . . .
there was a law in Williamsburg that stated sheets in the taverns had
to be changed once every two months.
The law required eighteenth- century tavern keepers to furnish " good,
wholesome, and cleanly lodging and diet for travellers," but there was
no specific reference to
changing sheets.
Conditions varied
as in today' s hotels and motels.
Clean
exception
travelers'
rather
than
the rule
if
sheets
in
taverns
seem to have been the
accounts
are
accurate.
person even went so far as to carry his own sheets with him.
One
However,
inventories of the better taverns in Williamsburg list more sheets than
beds, so clean linen was probably available at these taverns most of the
time.
�19.
RUMOR HAS IT THAT . . .
people did not bathe or change their clothes very often in the
eighteenth century.
People rarely record such personal and routine information about themselves,
There is no reason
so there is no way to answer the questions adequately.
to
think that most
colonial Virginians did not bathe and change clothes
William Byrd II in his History of „the Dividing Line indicates
regularly.
on occasion that he was relieved to be able to bathe after several days'
travel
Inventories,
in the wilderness.
newspaper
ads,
and
other
sources
refer to outbuildings used as laundries, soaps, and laundrying equipment.
The curator of textiles tells us that methods of " dry cleaning” were used
on silks and other fancy fabrics.
20.
RUMOR HAS
IT
THAT . . .
there are two necessaries in each garden in Williamsburg because one
was
used while
the
other was
cleaned.
Many Williamsburg house lots had only one necessary house and some had none.
Even at Westover plantation the evidence is conclusive that there was only
No
one necessary house.
21.
RUMOR HAS
evidence points
to a "
spare"
house.
IT THAT .
women were not
allowed
to come
in the front door of
an eighteenth -
century tavern.
Firstly, women did not often frequent taverns, although there are records
of them sleeping there occasionally when traveling, dining with family or
There is no evidence that when
friends, and attending balls at taverns.
an eighteenth- century woman entered a tavern she had to use a back -oside
door.
It is likely that most women would not have wanted to bet in a
boisterous barroom.
The custom of a separate ladies' entrance or waiting
room appears to be a nineteenth -century one.
Even today some English pubs
have a public bar where local men congregate to drink and play darts and
a quieter
22.
lounge bar,
RUMOR HAS
where women feel more welcome.
IT THAT .
the pineapple became a symbol of hospitality because it resembles the
pinecone, a symbol of hospitality to the Greeks.
The research
staff checked
several
reference books on symbols and
found
nothing about the Greeks' using the pinecone as a symbol of hospitality.
To them it was a fertility symbol.
The
traditional explanation for
the pineapple' s
use as
a symbol
of
hospitality is that during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when
the fruit was
so
exotic and rare in England,
special esteem for
23.
RUMOR HAS
IT
his
guest
to
it was a mark of
the host' s
serve pineapple.
THAT . . .
Public Times was when the burgesses were in
session.
To Williamsburg colonists Public Times meant only that the General Court
or Court
of Oyer
and October ( when
sessions
of
Oyer
and Terminer was
the General
and Terminer).
coincided with court
sometimes
months
at
dates.
a
time.
in session.
Court met)
Public Times were
in April
and again in June and December
The Meeting of Merchants usually
The General Assembly met for long periods- Thus,
in session during Public Times.
the House of
Burgesses were sometimes
�24.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
kitchens were
separate from houses because
this
arrangement was
thought to reduce the danger of fire to the main house.
In 1705 Robert Beverley wrote, "
All
Their
Drudgeries
Virginians'
of
Cookery, Washing, Daries, etc. are perform d in offices detacht from the
Dwelling Houses, which by this means are kept more cool and Sweet."
Current scholarship on detached kitchens in the Chesapeake area emphasizes
their role in the segregation of different social groups.
Reducing the
risk of fire was not a reason for separating kitchens from the main
A balanced explanation of separate kitchens should therefore
men ion a concern for fire, but the emphasis should be on social factors.
houses.
I-
I think the wisdom of this approach is apparent when we consider that
frame houses survive
New En g_..
l and . he_ e
dunc..
of
o ' venom
h cent
century ..
cooking was
cdonecin the house.
Whereas,
in Virginia,
where kitchens were
separate, not one seventeenth century frame house is known to exist.
25.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . .
portrait painters in the eighteenth century had canvases already made
up with figures and torsos and just painted in their clients' heads.
The " headless body myth" has a relatively short history and we believe it
began sometime in the 1930s when the formula -like poses and prodigious
output of certain artists engendered among scholars a theory that itinerant
portrait
painters
painted bodies
spent
their winters preparing a
and backgrounds.
supply of canvases with
The so- called myth has applied to both
eighteenth and nineteenth -century painters without much evidence to support
it.
It probably would be erroneous to state that the technique never was
employed by artists working in eighteenth -century America since we can
only judge its presence by the incomplete evidence available to us today.
The evidence we
do
have consists
of
the paintings
which
survive
and
slim recorded documentation on artists methods during those years,
the cases of Jeremiah Theus in Charleston from ca. 1740 to 1774,
the
as in
and Charles
Willson Peale whose early career in the mid -Atlantic colonies is well
known.
No mention of such a practice is made in any references to these
two painters
or
their work,
although we do
learn that several sittings with
the subject were required for completing a likeness.
Furthermore,
no
large -scale ( meaning oil on canvas and near life size) headless likenesses
by eighteenth- century portraitists in America have been discovered.
Finally, scholars have not been able to detect any physical evidence in
existing paintings that bodies were painted well in advance of the heads
Such physical evidence might include overlapping paint layers along the
neck and chin areas as well as along the circumference of the head where
it joins
the background.
�We are pleased with the number of host /hostesses and escorts who have
achieved the status of
Senior Interpreter as well as those who are working
We wonder if some of you had questions concerning the
qualifications required for applying for this position. If so, here they are:
toward
this
position.
Qualifications ( list minimum qualifications for job -- education, experience,
High school or equivalent; two years college with specialization in
other)
history or equivalent experience; good communication skills; minimum of four
years experience, regular or year round casual status,
as a Foundation host/
hostess or escort at an above average or higher level of performance for the
year immediately preceeding application, works at all sites and in all programs
for which he or she has been trained unless prohibited for medical reasons;
participation in an exchange training course or its equivalent; certification
as proficient in three interpretative skill areas by a committee made up of
a staff person from the appropriate research or curatorial department,
director or master teacher of the Interpretive Education department,
least one staff person from the candidate' s home department.
Erratum:
the
and at
The short professional profiles of the faculty members of the Core
Curriculum stated Harold B.
Howard University.
Gill,
Jr.' s
graduate work was done at
This work was done at Harvard University.
MERRY
CHRISTMAS -
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 3, 1982
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/7492383eda0a53d6d6fd42ebdbbcfc25.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=O%7EMA8KS28sri64KaEVcML5KqtobsPmoc33WVb4YmZrYJTzoCemdAX-mxsxXJUuYYApiLRYxX8wF1yG5Opcfd%7EfgZNBB8v7ay7VTihs9n4QiFeaxhvPAK4fqIEE%7E1H1BY-H7ul3y0ZYYNbJQHpFs2NrHMX8y8BkhTKmM%7Ew33At9xuJUus68Ua3CG623SEq%7ENzqUYpCZ1Scre5M8evwd5OSXDMg4ctDJxVupfJU3TFCi1NMzzVxwz4ZM%7E0%7EkITjb4q2gCwug-l0xiXnv5ieFUFYPKFxGI11LzMBG1PocLJK3D3UqsAK5FsoJMlfz1lfqCjkQZ8AU0HZUSdtOhATW6H0g__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
01708a78fdae85731653d594e03a073b
PDF Text
Text
I
VOL.
II,
No.
1
FEBRUARY
1981
Many of our visitors in February have a special interest in George
Washington.
Therefore,
we decided,
with the assistance of the Research
Department, to devote this issue to Mr.
Williamsburg.
What qualities did Mr.
of
Washington' s presence in Colonial
X
rnm
Washington have to make him a practical man
affairs?
Thomas Jefferson in 1814 perceived Mr. Washington in this way:
Perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence,
never acting until every circumstance,
every consideration,
was maturely weighted; refraining if he saw a doubt, but, when
once decided, going through with his purpose whatever obstacles
opposed.
His integrity was most pure, his justice the most
inflexible I have ever known,
no motives of interest of consan-
guinity, of friendship or hatred, being able to bias his decision.
Be was,
indeed,
a
man."
great
in every sense of the words,
During which periods of Mr.
visitor to Williamsburg?
a wise,
a good,
and
Washington' s life was he a frequent
IN
From his early manhood until he was nearly fifty years old, Washington
made frequent visits to Williamsburg. His first visit was probably in
1749;
his last known visit in 1781.
What military reasons brought him to Williamsburg?
In 1753 Mr.
ments
Washington came to Williamsburg to discuss French encroach-
on the Ohio with Lieutenant -Governor Dinwiddie at the Palace.
During
the French and Indian War ( 1754 - 1758) Washington returned to Williamsburg
Washington was here again in September 1781 when the
French and American forces assembled before the Siege of York.
on
several
missions.
Where did Mr.
Washington receive his
surveyor' s commission?
In 1749 he received a commission as surveyor for Culpeper County from
the President, Masters, and Professors of the College of William and Mary,
since the College held the office of
Surveyor General of Virginia.
This
was probably Washington' s first visit to town.
When was Mr.
Washington elected to The House of Burgesses and how
long did he serve as a member?
After
Washington represented Frederick County from 1759 to 1765.
he was a burgess for Fairfax County, a position he held until 1775.
1765
What personal reasons and business affairs made it necessary for him
to come to Williamsburg?
Washington came to Williamsburg to receive his surveyor' s commission,
discuss military matters with governors,
COL NIAL
serve as a burgess, manage the
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
WILAMSBURG
�estate of Daniel Parke Custis whose widow he married, attend meetings at
the Williamsburg Masonic Lodge, and to assemble the French and American
forces before the siege of York Town.
How long did it take him to travel from Mt. Vernon to Williamsburg?
The journey from Mount Vernon to Williamsburg took about four days
on horseback or five days with a gig or coach.
Which private homes and public buildings did Mr.
while
Washington frequent
he was here?
We know George Washington visited Bruton Church,
the Capitol,
Governor' s Palace, and the College of William and Mary.
ments he frequented
include the James Anderson House,
Christiana Campbell' s Tavern,
Market Square Tavern,
Theater,
and Wetherburn' s
Peyton Randolph,
Tazewell
the Charlton House,
the Norton -Cole House,
Tavern.
George Wythe,
He visited
Business
the
establish-
Ayscough' s,
the King' s Arms Tavern,
the Raleigh Tavern,
the homes
of Robert
the Second
Carter,
and John Randolph ( whose house was called
Hall).
How did Mr.
Williamsburg?
Washington' s marriage to Martha Custis tie him closer to
Through his marriage
to Martha Dandridge Custis,
Mr.
Washington became
administrator of her deceased husband' s estate, which included Williamsburg
George and Martha visited Martha' s relative,
property.
Mrs.
Elizabeth
Daniel Parke Custis and Martha sometimes
Bassett Dawson in Williamsburg.
stayed at their house on Custis Square during their marriage, so Mrs.
Washington undoubtedly had a circle of friends in town with which she kept
in touch after Daniel' s death and her marriage to Washington.
Where was his wife' s property in Williamsburg?
Daniel Parke Cu. tis owned- three lots on the Duke of Gloucester Street
opposite Bruton Church ( colonial lots 353, 354, and 355) where Hartwell -
Perry Ordinary and the Custis- Maupin House stand today, as well as Custis
Square,
across Nassau Street from the Public Hospital site.
What was Mr. Washington' s relationship to his stepchildren?
Washington was generous and attentive to his stepchildren.
He managed
their shares of their father' s estate and showed sincere concern for the
education of " Jackie ".
Patsy suffered from a long illness during which
Washington strove to make her as comfortable as possible.
Both stepchildren
died young.
What kind of an education did Mr. Washington receive as a boy?
As far as we know, Washington received only tutoring and never went to
college.
He probably studied arithmetic, geography, composition,, simple
geometry,
and likely learned his surveyor' s skills from professionals in
his neighborhood.
�3-
How tall was Mr.
Washington?
Did
he
use
false
teeth?
Did he
wear
a
wig?
George washington repeatedly referred to himself as exactly six feet
Yes,
tall.
he had
teeth and ivory).
false
No,
teeth ( made not of wood but
of
animal
and
human
he did not wear a wig, but he sometimes powdered his
own brown hair.
Did Mr.
Washington
take
gambled
part
cards
in the
social
life
of
the
town while he
was here?
Yes,
balls,
men,
he
the
and
theater,
took meals
Was Mr.
Battle
In
of
at
and billiards,
frequented
and
spent
attended
evenings
at
private
houses
horse
races,
in
town.
Washington in Williamsburg during the Revolution before the
Yorktown?
the
fall of
1781
the
French
and
American
forces
around Williamsburg before the siege of York Town,
served
local
several taverns and coffeehouses with other
assembled
in
and
and the Wythe House
as Washington' s headquarters.
Did Mr. Washington return to Williamsburg after the Battle of Yorktown?
There is no documentary evidence that George Washington visited
Williamsburg after September 28, 1781, when the combined French and American
forces headed
for York Town.
�81,
Questions
VOL.
2,
No.
Answers
APRIL
2
1981
Ct
coo
rnrn1
The questions for this issue have been selected from the questions
asked during our winter in- service training.
In addition,
the answers
to questions our visitors most often ask are included in this issue.
have
asked different CW Departments
to
answer
We
the appropriate questions
for us.
Harold Gill:
rnx
t7
The Research Department
Did the members of the House of Burgesses wear hats while in session?
We think that in imitation of the practice of the House of Commons
the burgesses wore their hats while sitting in the Chamber of the House.
At some point in the eighteenth century, members of the House of Commons
began attending sessions without hats and only the Speaker continued to wear
one.
The burgesses probably changed their custom within a few years of the
House
of
Commons'
change.
O
0
CM. c
70 mA
GO
Co o
MM
CD
CO • U)
rn
Approximately how many taverns were licensed and operating in Williamsburg at a given time from 1750 - 1775?
From the manuscripts at Badminton House we know that there were nine
taverns in Williamsburg in 1769.
from eight to
Between 1702 and
1780
that number varied
fourteen.
CD d
CO1 d
C
CD z
mGfl
ME
What was the population of Williamsburg in the eighteenth century?
During the third quarter of the eighteenth century the population of
Williamsburg was about 2, 000.
GO
MM
rn
Why were the kitchens separated from the houses?
In 1705 Robert Beverley wrote: "
All Their ( Virginians')
Drudgeries
of
Cookery, Washing, Daries, etc. are perform' d in offices detacht from the
Houses, which by this means are kept more cool and Sweet."
Dwelling.
Why are the beds so short, or its corollary, how tall were people in
the
rn
on
rn
eighteenth century?
The beds are actually about six feet long, the same as modern standard
sized beds; they appear shorter because of the high ceilings and tall
bedsteads.
Revolutionary soldiers averaged 5' 7. 7 " -- slightly more thatLa
half inch shorter than Americans who served in the Korean War.
70
a
z
z
cn
Are venetian blinds
authentic?
Venetian blinds are authentic to
listed in inventories of the Palace,
a
They are
and Williamsburg craftsmen advertised
the
eighteenth century.
that they made and sold this kind of blind.
Why did the capital move to Richmond?
The
seat of
government of
the Commonwealth of Virginia was moved to
Richmond because that city is more centrally located and more easily
defended than Williamsburg.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
zt7
fcrzn
on
e
CD
z
GO
�When is it appropriate to use the terms British and English?
flag?
Englishman?
The terms are not synonymous.
one of
the counties of
Briton "),
Great
British
Are they interchangeable?
English colony?
An englishman is a native of England,
Britain.
Every Englishman is a Britisher ( or
but not every Britisher is an Englishman.
There was
no
British
flag until after 1707 and the Act of Union; before that time there was an
English flag.
Is
there a male equivalent
for
the
term " wench "?
Wench means a young girl or woman, often a slave or servant.
of
the same position were
called
Edward A.
Young men
fellows.
Chappell:
Architecture
What was Colonial Williamsburg' s policy in regard to the preservation of
buildings at the time of the restoration?
Could
you give us
the
ten principles
of the early Colonial Williamsburg' s restoration code?
The list was published
in Kocher &
Buildings and Gardens ( Williamsburg,
1.
Dearstyne, Colonial Williamsburg:
The ten principles
pp. 48 - 49.
1949),
Its
were:
All buildings or parts of buildings in which the colonial tradition
persists should be retained irrespective of their actual date.
2.
Where the classical tradition persists in buildings or parts of
buildings, great discretion should be exercised before destroying them.
3.
Within the " restoration area" all work which no longer represents
colonial or
4.
classical
tradition
should be
demolished or
removed.
Old buildings in Williamsburg outside the " restoration area"
wherever possible should be left and if possible preserved on their original
sites
and
5.
restored
there rather
than moved
within
the " area."
No surviving old work should be rebuilt for structural reasons if
any reasonable additional trouble and expense would suffice to preserve it.
6.
There should be held in the minds of the architects in the treatment
of buildings the distinction between " Preservation" where the object is
scrupulous retention of the surviving work by ordinary repair, and " Restoration"
where the object is the recovery of the old form by new work; the largest
practicable number of buildings should be preserved rather than restored.
7.
Such preservation and restoration work requires a slower pace than
ordinary modern construction work,
to
more
8.
rapid
and a superior result should be preferred
progress.
In restoration the use of old materials and details of the period and
character, properly recorded, is commendable when they can be secured.
9.
In the securing of old materials there should be no demolition or
removal of buildings where there seems a reasonable prospect that they will
persist
10.
intact on their original
sites.
Where new materials must be used, they should be of a character approximating the old as closely as possible, but no attempt should be made to
antique" them by theatrical means.
�Bland Blackford:
Archives
When was the tunnel put under the town?
It was begun in 1940 and completed in 1942.
When did the Travis House cease to function as a colonial -style
restaurant?
February 16,
1951.
When were the streets in the Historic Area closed to traffic?
In 1963 we closed Duke of Gloucester from April 1 through Labor Day.
In 1965 the hours of closing were from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m. beginning at Easter
In 1969 Duke of Gloucester was
time and continuing through November 28.
closed on a twelve -month basis during the day with the hours of 8 a. m. to
6 p. m. year round.
The hours of closure were extended to 9 p. m. during July
and August.
In January 1973 we closed Blair, Colonial and Queen Streets at their
accesses along East Francis Street.
Gloucester.
On July 1,
1973,
Closure time was
the same as Duke of
the Merchants Square portion of Duke of
Gloucester was closed to traffic as an experiment.
The Council
permanent closing of Duke of Gloucester on February 14, 1974.
approved
Williamsburg Area Chamber of Commerce
What is the breakdown of Williamsburg' s population today?
Are
the
students at the College of William and Mary included in this total figure?
The population of James City County, the Bruton District of York County,
and Williamsburg is 38, 000 including William and Mary students. The population of the city of Williamsburg is 11, 600 and this figure includes
approximately 6, 500 William and Mary students.
Personnel
How many people work for Colonial Williamsburg today?
Employment varies during the year.
During the busy summer months
there are. about 4, 000 employees, in the fall and spring about 3, 600 and
in the winter
2, 900.
�I
Questions
VOL.
2,
No.
ISZ,
Answers
JUNE 1981
3
The answers to the questions in this issue of Questions and Answers
have been contributed by Harold Gill of Colonial Williamsburg' s Research
A number of
Department.
the questions are concerned with Virginia' s
relationship to England and the laws that regulated the colony and the
lives of colonial Virginians.
questions
that
Please
should be
of
In addition,
there are a few miscellaneous
interest.
send all your questions to Jane Strauss.
nx
C7
Was South Carolina the wealthiest colony in the eighteenth century?
No.
Virginia was considered
Jamaica was
the wealthiest
in
the wealthiest
continental colony,
and
the Western Hemisphere.
What goods were shipped from Virginia and the colonies to China in
trade for
tea and
c..
rn c
CD
z
other goods?
There was no direct trade between China and Virginia.
Tea
and other
goods from " exotic" countries were obtained by the colonists from England
in exchange for
1 G
tobacco.
CD • 2>
G
z m
t7
Why were the Townshend Duties passed in 1768 when he died in 1767?
On May 13, 1767, Charles Townshend proposed a port tax in the American
colonies
name of
on
its
tea,
glass,
originator.
paper,
and
other
goods.
The
proposal
took
on
the
The legislation was not passed by Parliament until
1768, by which time its namesake had died a premature death at age 42 " of
a neglected
fever."
England
after
the Revolution?
There was no
How, when,
m
r S_
C --'
m c
official
Burgesses
connection.
created
T
0m
cD
counties when
z
CD r—
r
and by whom were new counties in Virginia formed?
The House of
r
cn H
What was the College of William and Mary' s connection with the Church
of
CJ)
there were
z z
t7
enough people
The residents of a locality often
in an area to justify that action.
petitioned for the division of a county into two or more new counties.
r
c6
After incorporation of Williamsburg, what was the role of the mayor
and alderman in land granting?
The mayor and aldermen had no part in granting Williamsburg lots; that
was the function of
the feofees, as directed in the 1699 act establishing
The term " feofee" is synonomous with " trustee ".)
T
2>
Z
cn
the City of Williamsburg. (
z
GI
m
Were eighteenth- century inventories required at anytime other than at
death?
If so, were they used for taxation at other times? Were taxes paid
on household goods only at death?
Estate inventories were required only to settle decedents' estates.
Inventories were never used for tax purposes, because personal property
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
c
I
r
mt7
�the only kind of items included in inventories) was not taxed -- except
wheeled carriages during the French and Indian War. After the Revolution,
certain items of personal property ( clocks and mahogany furniture, for
example) were taxed,
but not from inventories.
Were there slave blocks in town?
No,
as far as we know there was no slave block in Williamsburg.
The
steps of the Raleigh Tavern were often the scene of slave auctions.
Did they have commercial fisheries in eighteenth- century Virginia?
Though there is evidence that many individuals derived some of their
income from fishing, there is no evidence of a commercial fishery in
colonial Virginia.
Approximately how much cloth would .an acre of flax produce?
We can find no information on the amount of cloth produced from an
acre of
flax.
Why did sugar come in a cone shape?
Sugar was molded into cones because that shape is the best for crystalThe small end of the earthen mold was open like a funnel
izing the syrup.
and stopped with wet cloth when the hot syrup was poured in.
After
the
substance had mostly solidified, the stopper was removed to allow the last
of the juices to drip out.
A layer of wet white clay was then spread over
the broad
As the water ( by its weight) descended through
end
of
the
cone.
the sugar, it mixed with the syrup still in the loaf and washed it away.
After about a week' s drying in an oven, the sugar loaf was ready for shipment.
What
is
the real origin of
The origin of
includes
the
the expression " mind your
the expression is uncertain.
obvious
explanation:
p' s and q' s "?
The Oxford English Dictionary
a child' s difficulty learning to distinguish
By the way, 1779 is the earliest refer-
between the tailed letters p and q. (
ence to
the phrase in the Oxford English Dictionary.)
Are there any extant golden horseshoes that were given as souvenirs
by Governor Spotswood to members of the expedition to the Blue Ridge?
There is no
extant original
today.
�Questions
VOL.
2,
No.
8Z,
Answers
4
AUGUST
1981
This issue of Questions and Answers is in response to a number of
questions about the Historic Area that have been answered for us by the
Architecture Department.
In the future we are planning an issue on the eighteenth- century use
of energy and another on eighteenth- century crime and punishment.
ever have any questions that you would like answered,
Jane
If
you
please send them to
Strauss.
How was the original land acquired for the development of Williamsburg
after
1699?
Who was authorized to buy the land and where were funds
obtained for the purchasing of it?
When the Virginia Assembly passed the law which made Williamsburg the
capital in 1699,
the land at Middle Plantation,
with the exception of the
College of William and Mary, was privately owned by John Page, Henry Tyler,
and
others.
The colonial government purchased 475 acres and entrusted 230
to a board of twelve " Feofees or Trustees."
sold
town
lots.
The trustees subdivided and
The proceeds were used to reimburse the government.
The
balance of the land was used for the Capitol and the town ports.
further information see John Reps, Tidewater Towns, pp.
Is it possible to say how long it took to construct a home like the
In only a few cases does documentation survive making it possible to
It
say how long it took to build some eighteenth- century Virginia houses.
might take two years to build a residence as substantial as George Wythe' s
or only six to eight months to erect a small frame dwelling.
of medium size,
Geddy' s
might have taken a year or longer to build.
Can you recommend references for plans of colonial homes?
Plans of colonial homes can be found in Marcus Whiff en' s The Eighteenth
Although out of print at present, most
Century Houses of Williamsburg.
libraries have a copy and it will be reprinted in about a year.
Measured
drawings and plans of surviving eighteenth- century dwellings recorded by the
Historic American Buildings Survey can be purchased from the Prints and
Photographs Division, Library of Congress.
The Colonial Williamsburg
Foundation does not make their unpublished plans available to the public.
A statement of this policy can be obtained from the Architect' s Office.
Why are the pine floors nailed through the face and not through the
edge?
It was easier, faster, and, consequently, less expensive to nail them
More care is required to insert the nail at a diagonal
through the edge without splitting the board.
in
this manner.
A Bimonthly Publication of
CENTURY
For
143 - 146.
teddy or Wythe House?
house and store,
EIGHTN-
the Department of Interpretive Education
ARCHITEU
WILAMSBURG
IN
�What was
to
the cost
the cost of
of
the different
size
of nails and how did
Nails were priced by the hundred and ranged from 3d ( pence)
hundred.
they
long.
were
fenced
What
thin nails,
for
to
their
size
and
the
size
floorboards,
or brads,
related
to
to 20d per
the member
were used on moldings and longer nails
stairs,
weatherboards,
or
William Allason, a Fredericksburg merchant,
a
relate
A 6d nail was 2 - 3/ 8" long, a 10d was 2 - 7/ 8" and a 20d was 3 - 1/ 4"
Short,
example,
he
The price related
secured.
used
that
the house?
fences.
In
1767,
for
used 1, 997 20d nails when
lot.
kind
of wood
The Wythe House
is
in
the handrail
stair handrail
of
the Wythe House
staircase?
is walnut.
Were window screens used in the eighteenth century?
Window screens may have been used to a limited degree in the eighteenth
John Tayloe ordered " wire windows" for Mount Airy in 1765 and James
century.
Brice purchased
four
dozen for his Annapolis
townhouse
dwellings were built by men of considerable means,
in 1767.
Both
of
these
and screens probably would
have been rare in Williamsburg.
What was the average " life" of an eighteenth- century Virginia kitchen?
There is absolutely no evidence that most kitchens lasted for only about
We now know that many outbuildings were less substantially built
than are those that survive or have been reconstructed in Williamsburg.
However, it is suspected that a kitchen that lasted only five years would have
been an unfortunate deviation from the norm.
Current scholarship regarding
five
years.
detached kitchens
in
the Chesapeake centers
on
their role in
the
of different social groups rather than their capacity to prevent
of
segregation
the spread
fires.
Erratum:
In
the April
typographical
An
1981
issue
errors.
of
Questions &
The sentence
Englishman is a native of
of Great
Britain.
Answers
on page 2
England,
one of
there were
two
should read:
the countries
�Questions &
VOL.
2,
No.
Answers
5
OCTOBER 1981
co
Questions and Answers is designed to help interpreters make their
interpretations more interesting, accurate, and relevant to our visitors'
experience.
It will focus on concepts and issues and provide interesting
factual material drawn from our ever - expanding historical and cultural
It is your publication, and its
knowledge of the eighteenth century.
Two future issues, for
usefulness and vitality depend on your input.
example, grow out of some of your most probing questions -- " Energy Sources
and Energy Conservation in Eighteenth- Century Virginia" and " Eighteenth Century Crime and Punishment."
m
rnn
rn
rnX
D O
z
In order to keep Questions and Answers working for you,
please send
Mti
your questions to Jane Strauss, and she will forward them to the appropriate
person for an answer.
Harold Gill, in the Research Department, answers
most of
the questions concerned with historical matters.
are regularly forwarded to Ivor Noel -Hume,
Architecture,
and Graham Hood,
pretive interest
are used
Collections.
in Questions
G.
Brown,
Dennis O' Toole,
Questions
and Answers,
focus are answered directly to the sender.
Peter A.
Archaeology,
The
but
Other
general
those
of
questions.
CD
rn
CZ o
n
z
inter-
c
a narrower
editorial board consists of
and Bill Tramposch.
This particular issue is devoted to a number of interesting and useful
miscellaneous
00
questions
Ed Chappell,
of
70 bd
Unless otherwise noted,
these have been
answered
by our Research Department.
zcn= m
ti c
co
n z
c)
CD 0
a z
7C0GO0O CI
What disease caused Governor Botetourt' s final illness and death?
Lord Botetourt, according to his physicians, died of a " bilious fever
and St. Anthony' s fire."
Dr.
John de
Sequeyra wrote: "
Our
Back,
0
good Governor
Lord Botetourt had the same [ remittent] Fever, but his Blood being in a
bad condition, it turned of the Malignant kind, having large Spots of a
purple Color upon his Breast & part of his
m 3
td
Oo s'
m
rn n
n r-
had
became delirious, &
oe, -
H
very strong convulsions for some time before he died."
St. Anthony' s Fire ( erysipelas)
intense local
inflammation of
the
is an acute disease associated with
skin and
subcutaneous
tissue.
It
ti
is
caused by a streptococcus bacterium carried in the bloodstream.
Was
the unicorn ever
the
symbol
of England?
According to my research in J. H. & R. V. Pinches, The Royal Heraldry of
England, 1974, the unicorn has been associated with Scottish royalty
since
1426.
Its first recorded use by English royalty was as a supporter
when the arms of England and Scotland were united in the early 1600' s.
The
lion,
on
the
other hand,
has been
ascribed
to
English kings
as
back as the Norman Conquest,
Richard
the
I' s Great
Scottish kings
Seals (
though its actual use can be traced only to
circa 1190 and 1200).
A lion was also used by
on their royal arms from the
time of Alexander
II,
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
far
N]
�1214 -1249.
until
However,
the lion cannot be said to be the symbol of Britain
the union of the English and
Scottish thrones in 1603,
became a supporter of the royal arms opposite
the unicorn,
John R.
retaining its position in the arms themselves. (
What
is
the derivation of
the
when the lion
as well as
Barden)
term " commonwealth "?
Originally two words - -common ( shared alike by all) and wealth, also
weal ( well -being or welfare), which together meant something on the order
of " public welfare."
Common weal or common wealth were used side by side
with general weal,
public weal,
and weal -public.
By the sixteenth century,
commonwealth became an ordinary English term meaning the whole body of
people constituting a nation or state, the body politic in which the whole
people have a voice or an interest.
In the seventeenth century it came to
mean a state in which the
or democratic state.
supreme power is vested
Virginia,
in the people - - republic
a
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts,
and Kentucky
are the only commonwealth states today.
What was the difference between an alderman and a councilman?
In colonial Virginia the justices of the peace and the county courts
The justices were
exercised almost complete authority in local affairs.
When
legislators and executives as well as judges for the county.
Williamsburg was chartered, all authority was vested in the mayor, recorder,
aldermen, and common councilmen, but unlike the county justices, their
powers were
divided.
All judicial authority and certain executive powers
relating to the maintenance of law and order were granted to the mayor,
recorder,
and alderman alone.
The legislative and major executive powers
were given to the entire group of officials meeting as a common council
for the purpose of governing the town.
According to Williamsburg' s charter, the first mayor, recorder, and
were named in the charter.
They were to elect from the inhabitants
of the City, being free men, twelve persons to serve as common councilmen.
alderman
Each year the mayor was chosen by the aldermen from among themselves.
recorder,
aldermen,
The
and common councilmen served during their good behavior.
When a vacancy occurred, aldermen were chosen by aldermen from among the
councilmen; councilmen were chosen from the inhabitants and free holders of
the City by the mayor, recorder, and aldermen.
What was the value of a slave in comparison to eighteenth- century real
estate
values?
Did this change during the eighteenth century?
Between 1765 and 1775, rural land sold for approximately £ 2 sterling
per acre in York County and the average adult male slave was appraised at
54.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the average price was
10 shillings an acre and an adult male slave was valued at an average of £ 30.
�What is the difference between the terms inn, ordinary, and tavern?
None.
The terms were used interchangeably in colonial Virginia. Though
coffeehouses differed from taverns in England and the northern colonies,
in colonial Virginia establishments referred to as coffeehouses provided the
same services as
taverns and,
like taverns,
were licensed.
Did the county courts regulate tavern prices to protect the tavern owner
or
patron?
The county courts established fair prices for certain drinks, meals,
and
services offered by tavernkeepers to protect the patrons from being overcharged.
Who could have been served alcoholic beverages in a tavern in colonial
Virginia?
Restrictions on serving alcoholic beverages applied to three groups- sailors,
servants and
slaves,
and
college
Sailors who paid in cash could drink,
students.
eat,
and lodge at taverns but
needed the consent of the master of their ship to receive credit at taverns.
Legislation concerning servants and slaves - -which forbade anyone from
buying from, selling to, or receiving any money or commodity from a servant
or slave without consent from the master or owner -- applied to tavernkeepers,
merchants,
and
other
persons.
Students at the College of William and Mary were not allowed to frequent
taverns in or near Williamsburg except at the request of adult relatives or
However, by the 1760' s, groups of students who belonged to several
friends.
social -intellectual societies were allowed to meet at the Raleigh and other
local taverns but individual students continued to be restricted from
frequenting taverns.
Could you supply us with a random sampling of bed lengths in the
exhibition buildings? (
Location
Collections)
Length by Width
Randolph
oak bedroom -
6 feet 5 - 3/ 4 inches by 4 feet 1/ 4 inch
corner bedroom -
6 feet 6 inches by 5 feet
Wythe
S.
E.
bedroom
S.
W.
bedroom
6 feet 4 - 1/ 2 inches by 6 feet 4 - 1/ 2 inches
6 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 1 inch
Brush
N.
W.
bedroom -
N.
E.
bedroom -
6 feet 5 - 1/ 8 inches by 3 feet 11 - 1/ 8 inches
6 feet 3 - 3/ 4 inches by 4 feet 9 - 1/ 4 inches
�Sampling of bed lengths in the exhibition buildings Location
continued
Length by Width
Geddy
c.
W.
bedroom
6 feet 2 - 3/ 4 inches by 4 feet 4 inches
bedroom 112
6 feet 6 - 1/ 2 inches by 4 feet 4 - 1/ 2 inches
Palace
6 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 5 inches
His Lordship' s
bedchamber
Did people sleep in a sitting position during the eighteenth century?
Many eighteenth -century inventories include a bolster and two pillows
A bolster was a soft, roundish cushion
among the furniture for each bed.
The bolster stayed on the bed, and a pillow
as long as the bed was wide.
was used on top of it. From this information we infer, cautiously, that
many people slept with their heads elevated.
What happened
to George Wythe' s furniture?
After George Wythe' s death, his whole estate ( except for a very few
small bequests) went to his nephew George Wythe Sweeny,
named
the surviving heir
in Wythe' s will.
There is at Monticello a mahogany dining table supposedly given to
Thomas Jefferson by George Wythe, but there is no documentary evidence
substantiating that tradition.
Were there locksmiths in Williamsburg?
There is no record of a locksmith in Williamsburg, but there are records
that
indicate that
blacksmiths repaired
locks.
Were they eating popcorn in the eighteenth century?
The first reference to popcorn in the Oxford English Dictionary is 1848.
Note:
1982.
arts
The Antiques Forum will be held in Williamsburg from January 24 - 29,
The influence of royal governors on colonial tastes in the decorative
is
this
year' s theme.
who wish to attend
All active and retired Colonial Williamsburg employees
can register
or wish to register,
for $ 125. 00.
If you
call Trudy Moyles at 2371.
should have
further questions
�Questions &
VOL.
2,
No.
Answers
DECEMBER 1981
6
In this issue of Questions and Answers we are responding to some of the
When the Christmas season
questions most frequently asked by our visitors.
arrives,
please refer
to your December
1980
issue of § uestions
and Answers.
Remember to send Jane Strauss any questions you would like to have answered
in future issues.
t7
m
x
Linda Baumgarten from the Department of Collections has furnished the
answers to the following questions about textiles.
Did men and women button their clothes on the opposite side during the
colonial
period?
During the eighteenth century, most women' s clothes were not fastened
with buttons.
Some clothes were laced,
some pinned together,
and some
wrapped and held with an apron, except for garments such as riding habits.
Print and painting sources from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries show
that men nearly always buttoned their garments with left lapping over right
All of the men' s costumes in the C. W. F. collections
as they do today).
button this way.. Buttoned women' s garments, on the other hand, do not seem
to have been standardized during the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries; print sources show garments buttoning from either direction.
do not know when or why standardization occurred.
I
How did people wash and clean their clothes in the eighteenth century?
Many methods were used to clean clothing, depending on the fiber and
construction
involved.
Washable
with soap and hot water.
fabrics
Occasionally,
such as
linens were washed
alone for special cleaning powders or when soap was not available;
included lye water and
putrid urine.
in tubs
other substances were added or used
Silks
and
wools were
either
these
spot
cleaned with fuller' s earth or other dry solvents like bran, or they were
sent to professionals like the wool fullers or silk dyers who were trained
in scouring, cleaning and dyeing textiles. (
Upholsterers
sometimes
advertised that they cleaned bedroom furniture.)
What
evidence is
there of clotheslines in colonial Virginia?
Clotheslines do show up in print sources; they were apparently used
indoors as well as outdoors.
What dyeing method was used on the blue resist fabric bed furniture in
the Wythe House?
Indigo resist.
The areas
to
remain white were " resisted"
or reserved
by using a clay or wax material which was applied with blocks or stencils.
Indigo becomes darker with repeated dippings, so any areas to be light blue
could be blocked out after the desired shade was reached and before further
dippings
in the vat.
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�Mr.
Sumpter Priddy, Teaching Curator, Department of Collections, has
answered the following question on colonial mirrors,
Why are the looking glasses ( mirrors) often in two different pieces?
I have addressed this question many times in lectures and there is no
that I can document.
In Baroque looking glasses ( i.e., those
in the so- called " William and Mary" and the " Queen Anne" styles), the top of
absolute answer
the upper mirror often has arches and curves cut to conform to the shape of
the molded
frame.
As a rule,
the glass
is also
bevelled around
these edges.
The grinding of the bevels around the curves and edges would be much easier
to
achieve on a smaller piece of glass
than on a larger one.
Additionally,
This
during grinding, a smaller and thus cheaper piece would be destroyed.
theory is supported by the fact that most glasses of plain, rectilinear form
are made
of
a
neo- classic
single
piece - and
this
includes most Rococo
and
almost
all
examples.
The old story about a tax on large pieces of glass appears to be
Harold Gill has verified that no such law
completely without foundation.
existed in Virginia; and in England every attempt was made to encourage
manufacturing in the eighteenth century, not to hamper it. Additiynally,
if one compares very large, two -piece looking glasses with smaller examples
of the same form,
the larger will often have a single unit containing more
surface
that
area
than
of
the
combined
surfaces
of
the
smaller
one.
I think the most logical answer is simply the advantage gained by
maneuvering a smaller piece of glass during the manufacturing process.
This question on eighteenth- century prints has been answered by Joan
Dolmetsch
in
the Department
of
Collections.
Why do prints show women with bulging eyes ( for example, the 1767 prints
Is it because eyes and hands
along the stairway of the Peyton Randolph House)?
are difficult to do?
I believe too much emphasis is placed on the difficulty of executing such
features.
If
a close observation
is made
very few have such distorted features,
Peyton Randolph House.
as
of the
prints,
it
is
discovered
that
including the ones in the set at the
More often the reason for
such faults
lies at
the hand
the engraver who does not take the time to execute such features as finely
Towards the end of the eighteenth century one finds that
might be desired.
more care was
taken in such work,
but
in the mid - period
represented
in most
of
the prints in the Colonial Williamsburg collection, engraving was frequently
done by men and women too little trained in their art.
Erratum:
In the October 1981 issue of Questions and Answers,
confused you in our answer regarding George Wythe' s furniture.
information from John Hemphill will clarify the answer.
What happened
to George Wythe' s
we perhaps
This further
furniture?
Since George Wythe ( who believed himself to have been poisoned by his
grandnephew George Wythe Sweeney) lingered long enough to disinherit his
namesake Sweeney in favor of his brothers and sisters, most of the estate must
have gone to Wythe' s sister' s other grandchildren, not to George Wythe Sweeney.
For the tragic end of Virginia' s Cato and most distinguished early lawyer, see
the two articles by Julian P. Byrd, " The Murder of George Wythe," and W.
Examinations of George Wythe Sweeney for Forgery and Murder:
Documentary Essay," in William & Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, XII ( 1955,
Hemphill, "
pp.
513 - 542 and 543 - 574,
especially p.
559,
n.
Edwin
A
47.
We have enjoyed receiving your questions this year, and we look forward
to hearing from you in the new year of 1982.
MERRY CHRISTMAS TO ALL!
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 2, 1981
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/12eb2cac70561f5b55d1c9aea6fcd7bf.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=eSmBxJm8g29TlZeVcZeGNxItnrCh-%7EHsO31SnDuymv3ty-DSQossD0fdn8abslF3B5KA6L893AXJ66vYI6SEryg%7EsvcCdkiU9hkSHNOvrcfCShSFy0IJoNyyLoEg7yBm%7EffU-Tt4XqRpnJE8kOsJkx7AVyx8qmNHUZRa6CPA5iIHL9%7E9n-CSQ2DqCa0KyriUMDBwlDDwZLdJqSBPJIIRYELL1migzkoUflHKF-TexsgS7FqP82aHt3s7VOxcRPq1nutImqsAiLgIpgIyX42RRmYUpCkJ5gRxpqeem%7EyQsVxnkHQNAxnd-WVyF%7ERsiYC1BzBYcYNmLEBnQAIRYMvj0w__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
cf83efc1d6c10c9327bd30760d8f936b
PDF Text
Text
VOL.
1
NO.
1
AUGUST 1980
This publication attempts to answer your historical questions.
So,
if
questions arise which neither you nor your supervisor are able to answer,
please contact Jane Strauss at extension 2449.
She will know who in the
Foundation is best qualified to answer your inquiry and, in turn, she will
respond either by note or by newsletter.
tions we
Below are just some of
have received in the recent past.
the ques-
By the way, you will notice that
each issue of Questions and Answers has in its right hand margin a " Subject
Index."
As issues accumulate, this list will allow you to refer quickly to
the specific issue and subject you wish to review.
1.
What was a freeholder?
Any person who owned land, including women and persons underage.
2.
Who was eligible to vote in Virginia in the eighteenth -century?
Suffrage was granted only to free white males, ages 21 and over, who met
certain other qualifications..
Women could not vote.
Indians and Negroes,
whether free or slave, were disenfranchised.
The Virginia election laws did
not mention religion except to require that qualified Quakers make affirmation before voting.
3.
What were the other qualifications for enfranchisement?
FREHOLDR,
VOTING,
So far as free white adult males were concerned, franchise requirements
did not in practice demand much of a stake nor were they very exclusive.
Freeholders could vote who owned ( or had a lifetime lease to) a. 25 acres
with house and plantation or, b. 100 acres of unimproved land or, c. a house
and part of a lot in a town.
There were other avenues to the ballot box:
freeholders with land which did not conform to these regulations, or men
owning no land at all could vote provided they owned 150 visible property
i.e.
cash or possessions).
In addition, men could vote who had served a
five -year apprenticeship in a trade in Norfolk or Williamsburg, and who were
housekeepers and inhabitants in those towns following their service. All
FRENCHMA'
S
MAP,
those eligible may not have exercised their right to vote, but it cannot be
said that a large mass of free adult white males were disenfranchised.
4.
When and where was the Frenchman' s map found?
The Frenchman' s map was purchased from a shop in Norfolk. In 1909, its
owner ( a resident of New York City) sent the map to a friend in Williamsburg
with instructions that it be presented to the librarian at the college.'
5.
CITY
Why is it called the Frenchman' s map?
Some of the notations on the map are in French, while others are in
The French notations and the map' s date ( 1782 ?) suggest that it
was drawn by a French soldier who was in this area during the siege at YorkEnglish.
town or just after.
6.
FIRE,
Did Colonial Williamsburg have a fire engine?
In 1716, Masters and Visitors of the College of William and Mary ordered
1 Ingine for quenching Fire "' and" 2 Doz. leather buckets..."
known if it ever arrived.
It is not
There was at least one fire engine in Williams-
burg by March 1756, for it was used to fight a fire that broke out in Dr.
A Bi- \ lonchly Publication at the Department of Interpretative Education
GOVERNMT
AND
COMERC
�Two years earlier, the Virginia council had ordered a fire
Peter Hay' s shop.
engine and four dozen leather buckets from London " for use of the Capitol."
7..
Were special wells designed to be used during a fire?
An act of the Assembly passed in November 1741 ( and again in 1761)
autho-
rized the Williamsburg city officials to levy a poll on the tithable
inhabitants to pay for sinking new wells and instal
supply the fire engine with water, in case of fir
city owned only one fire engine and only one pu
pump was out of repair, by the way.
8.
ng pumps in them " to
But
as
late as 1771
the
hadjbeen installed. - The
When was Williamsburg incorporated?//
royal charter in the name of King
It should be noted that Williamsburg was functioning as the Capitol
of the colony from 1699 when the General: Assembly passed " an act Directing
The government
the Building of the Capitoll and the City of Williamsburg."
was housed at the College from 1700 to 1704, when the Assembly first used the
On July 28, 1722, the city was granted
George
I.
Capitol for its meetings.
9.
How was it to be governed?
According to the charter,
a mayor,
10.
two
11.
a
recorder,
the officers of the city corporation included
six aldermen,
and
twelve
common
councilmen.
When were the markets and fairs held in Williamsburg?
The city was to have two markets a week ( Wednesday and Saturday),
fairs a year ( December 12 and April
and
23).
Were there fees placed on goods sold on market day?
Tolls were levied on livestock and goods sold at the market,
the revenue
to exceed
from which was to be used for the city' s benefit.
6d. on every beast, 3d. on every hog, and one - twentieth the value of any other
Tolls were not
commodity sold.
Freemen
charged non- residents.
12..
Did Williamsburg have a mace?
Yes.
The mace is made of silver dipped in gold.
solemn occasions,
probably by the town sergeant.
in the Courthouse of
13.
of the city were required to pay only half the toll
It was
carried
on all
This mace is now on display
1770.
Did Williamsburg have a night watch?
Williamsburg had no night watch until 1772, although the Virginia Gazette
for several years had waged a campaign for one.
The council decided in July,.
1772, to appoint " four sober and decent people to patrol the streets frbm ten
o' clock at night until daylight..."
They were to cry the hours, apprehend all
disorderly persons, have charge of the fire engines, and assist in extinguish-
ing fires.
14.
Each watchman would receive a yearly salary of L30.
Who in government was responsible for the maintenance of
the streets of
Williamsburg?
The duties of the common council also included responsibility for the
construction and maintenance of
public
facilities.
Since
the streets
of
Williamsburg were in so " ruinous a condition" in 1761 that it was " unsafe to.
pass in the night in any coach or other carriage,"
the city was authorized to
spend as much of its taxes as was necessary to keep the streets and lanes in
repair.
�Answers
Questions
VOL.
1 No.
1.
OCTOBER 1980
2
What period do we represent?
The Foundation' s title, " Colonial Williamsburg ",
sent the colonial period - up to 1776.
suggests
that we
The reconstructed buildings
c_
to
coC
repre-
m
demand
0
that our interpretation include the time when Williamsburg was the capital
of colonial Virginia.
The present capitol is a reconstruction of the one de-
z
stroyed by fire in 1747 and the Public Records office was built after that
date.
The Magazine is restored to its appearance during the 1750s and across
the
street
is
the
Courthouse of
1770.
Because
bf
the
t7.
X
m
anachronisms present
within the restored area- - for example, a building that no longer existed in
1747 next to one that was built after that date - we cannot say we represent
a specific year or even a specific decade,
but rather the ambience of
the
capital city of colonial Virginia and the quality of life of its citizens.
z en
n
2.
Could one buy a life insurance policy in the eighteenth century?
Existing records do not indicate that life insurance policies were avail able in the eighteenth century.
cn
3.
Were taxes determined by the size of your house?
No, there was no tax on buildings during the colonial period in Virginia.
1
0
Cfl
t7
a
r
4.
Who
n
v
n -
z
committed people to
the asylum?
t7
Three justices of the peace in the county where the prospective patient
lived were summoned by the sheriff of that county to pass on the sanity of
the
person.
Once sent to the hospital the Court of Directors apparently .
could refuse to admit the pettson if they thought him unsuitable.
The term " bouncer"
originated in the mid -nineteenth -century American west.
Carousing and drinking were common when colonial Virginians gathered in
taverns
and private homes.
Presumably, tavernkeepers or one of their employees or servants removed unruly customers when that became necessary.
6.
When did the game of
darts become popular?
The game of darts was not introduced until
7.
the
twentieth century.
no specific
any degree of accuracy.
both
the James
information available
However,
z
z
c
to
answer this
o
m
m
n
zz
7
d
n
M =
C-)
m
70m
How much was the area around Williamsburg forested?
There is
C
n
r z
z
rn
Did they have bouncers in the taverns?
5.
m
TI
question with
because people commented on the fact that
and York rivers were visible
from the cupola of
the Wren
Building- -which is not possible today - -we might guess that there was less
forest in the later eighteenth- century Williamsburg area than there is today.
1
8.
How were youths punished in the eighteenth century?
St. George Tucker claimed he
Then, as now, forms of punishment varied.
never used the rod or even spanked his stepchildren, but others used threats
Disciof physical force and, on occasion, whipped serious young offenders.
In wealthy
pline was often administered by persons other than parents.
Orphans
families the responsibility usually fell to governesses or tutors.
and children who were apprenticed to learn a trade, were disciplined by the
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
m
cn
r
4
�persons
9.
charged with
their
training.
When were the juvenile courts established?
The juvenile court was introduced into American jurisprudence by an
Illinois
law of
1899.
The first juvenile court in Virginia was established
in 1914. 10.
Were there cobblestones on the streets of Williamsburg?
No,
11.
there is no evidence of cobblestones in Williamsburg.
How were modillions
installed?
They were nailed on, usually from the soffit and corona of the cornice.
12.
What is a brick closer?
Closers are pieces of bricks that were inserted near an edge of a wall
in order to create a regular bonding pattern.
13.
How
authentic
are
the
signs?
Although none of Williamsburg' s many painted signs survived from the
eighteenth century, there is abundant documentation of their existence, and
to
some - extent,
of
their
appearance
as
well.
For instance,
the 1742 inven-
tory of Burdett' s Ordinary mentions among other things, a signboard depicting
Castle, valued at 2 pounds.
In 1762, Williamsburg apothecary
Many
George Pitt advertised his goods " at the sign of the Rhinocerros."
Edinburgh
other modern Williamsburg signs were designed according to conventional eigh-
teenth- century iconography for certain types of trades and business concerns.
In this case,
the prints of Williams Hogarth and others have been extremely
helpful.
14.
Why do we find beaded weatherboards on the buildings in Williamsburg?
Despite a variety of functional explanations,
cornerboards,
the edges of weatherboards,
frames,
and other architectural features were beaded primarily
for visual reasons.
The popular aesthetics of eighteenth- century Anglo=
America dictated that the visible individual members of a building should
receive detailed attention when it was affordable.
This aesthetics may also
be seen in molded window muntins, paneled doors, and round -butt shingles.
We wish to correct the answer to Question 12 in the August issue
We
of Questions and Answers.
Silver gilt is not silver dipped in gold.
Erratum:
should have said,
on
A
the
cleaned
REMINDER:
the gold was diluted in Mercury and then wiped or brushed
silver
surface.
Colonial Fair Days will be November 8,
9,
10,
and 11,
1980.
�VOL.
1,
No.
NOVEMBER 1980
3
This is a special issue of Questions and Answers because of the
upcoming Colonial Fair Days.
What- is Colonial Fair Days and how does it fit
into interpretation?
On November 8 - 11,. an event familiar to the city' s 18th -century
residents,
a fair, will be recreated on Market Square in Williamsburg.
Market and fair days were authorized in the legislation moving the
capital from Jamestown to Williamsburg,
and remained an ongoing respon-
sibility of the town fathers throughout the 18th century. The charter
incorporating Williamsburg in 1722 appointed two markets to be held
weekly on Wednesdays and Saturdays " in some convenient Place in the
said City;"
April.
and called for two fairs yearly to be held in December and
The purpose of the markets and fairs was commercial:
there
townspeople and visitors could supply their material needs and people
of the town and surrounding area could sell " all manner of Cattle,
Victuals,
Provisions,
Goods,
Wares and Merchandizes..."
Market Square was the location of the city' s markets and fairs.
We
By 1764, a market house had been erected somewhere on the square.
know neither the precise
it was made of wood,
as
location nor form of
this structure.
Perhaps
for by 1795 the Magazine was serving Williamsburg
its market house.
Fairs,
days.
unlike market days, might last as long as three or four
The town was always eager to attract buyers and sellers
fair and went
to
published prior
some expense
to do
to the December 1739
so.
to a
A long list of prizes was
fair in order
to attract people
Performers and attractions of various kinds were
to Williamsburg.
also welcome since they would add to " the Entertainment and Diversion
of all Gentlemen and others."
If people would come to laugh with a
puppeteer,
marvel at an acrobat,
show their best horse,
or wager on
some race or contest, then perhaps they would stay to look and to buy.
Visitors to Williamsburg November 8 - 17.. ( 10: 00 a. m.
to 4: 00 p. m.
except Sunday the 9th, 1: 00 to 4: 00 p. m.) will get a chance to plunge
Send
into a full scale recreation of an 18th -century colonial fair.
them Market Square way.
They will find much to see, do, and buy
there at the town' s commercial and community center.
A B1- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�VOL.
1,
No.
DECEMBER
4
Due to the interest,
1980
and in some instances confusion over the changes
to be made in the Palace, we are publishing a special issue of Questions
We have asked Mr. Graham Hood, Vice -President and Director
of Collections, to answer the questions most frequently asked about the
refurbishing of the Palace.
and Answers.
Will the Palace lose its elegance and beauty after the lovely wallpaper
1.
is removed and the muted colored carpets are replaced by more brightly
colored
ones?
It will, however, assume a different elegance from
an elegance much more firmly based
on documentation than before.
Thus we are gaining not only a different
No,
it will not.
the one that we have grown used to --
elegance but a much heightened authenticity and realism.
There is no documentation for the kind of wallpaper at present in the
Lord Botetourt had intended to
Supper Room being used in Williamsburg.
What we do know, howpaper that room, but precisely how we do not know.
ever, is that he papered the Ballroom; we shall paper it and color it
precisely in accordance with the 18th -century instructions.
A number of the carpets in the Palace at present are of the wrong type.
We shall install mainly English carpets; we can document that Lord Botetourt
brought these with him.
Reproductions will be based on the most exacting,
research to determine patterns that would have been available to him,
pre -
1768.
Are we taking out all of the antiques and putting in reproductions?
2.
Of
course not.
Palace.
However,
There will still be many antiques in the Governor' s
in order to be faithful to the 18th century' s concept
of the proper furnishing of rooms we shall be installing large sets of
In some
items -these are simply unobtainable in antique form today.
cases we have a number of objects for a larger set that we will fill out
in reproduction form.
In other cases we have only one object on which to
base the reproduction set.
In all cases we are basing the reproductions
made according to the most exacting standards)
firmly- documented history --
on prototypes with a
many of them with a history of belonging to
the
governors.
3.
Why is Botetourt a good representative of 18th- century style and
taste?
He was a bachelor.
To start with, we have not chosen to follow the Botetourt inventory in
refurnishing the Palace because Botetourt was " a good representative..."
We have chosen it because it represents the most detailed and reliable
evidence that exists for this project.
In other words, we are relying on
evidence
rather
than
on
the
subjective notion
of " taste."
Furthermore, one of the great differences between today and the 18th
century was that the gentleman of the household then played a vastly more
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�important role than he does today in- the choosing of furnishings and in the
We should stress this to our visitors, some
outfitting of his residence.
of whom perhaps feel that there might be something- slightly effeminate about
being involved in the choosing of- curtains or tea cups.
It was certainly
not considered effeminate in the 18th century.
In any event, a number of our royal governors were either unmarried
or were not joined by their wives for some time after they moved into the
Governor' s Palace.
Spotswood was not married while he was governor;
Mesdames Gooch and Fauquier were absent for long periods of time, and
Dunmore refurnished the Palace ( after the sale of Botetourt' s effects in
1771)
without the advice of his wife --
In other words,
4.
she
did not arrive until
What are we doing with everything being taken out ( i. e.
wallpapers,
1774.
Botetourt' s being a bachelor has little to do with it.
silver sconces,
etc.)?
The reconstruction of the Public Hospital and its conversion into the
Wallace Gallery of Decorative Arts is going to provide us with a superb
opportunity to display items that we feel are not appropriate for the
area.
We have collections of international repute; they deserve
Our visitors ( and
tp be seen, and they will be seen in the new gallery.
our staff) will thus have new opportunities of comparing what is appropriate
restored
for the Williamsburg scene with what may be considered more appropriate for
the London scene or the ( say) Boston scene.
This spring you
We hope you are saving your Questions and Answers.
will receive a handbook with a section reserved for Questions and Answers.
In the meantime, please continue to send your questions to Jane Strauss.
�VOL.
1,
No.
5
Now that
DECEMBER
the Christmas season is here,
we asked Lou
Staff Assistant, " How did colonial Virginians
Powers,
1980
Research
celebrate Christmas ?"
Christmas Day in the eighteenth century was more a holy day than our .
twentieth -century holiday.
The colonials observed it quietly in the home
Businesses closed and schooling was interrupted for the
slaves and servants enjoyed a day away from their labors if they
could be spared.
Attendance at the parish church on Christmas morning for
and
at
church.
season;
communion was expected because the Feast of the Nativity was the major
event of
the Anglican calendar.
From December 24 through Twelfth Night, January 6,
Neighbors,
visitors.
and
friends,
homes filled with
and kinsmen gathered for parties,
fox hunts.
dances,
At -home enter-
Hospitality was the order of the season.
The
tainment emphasized feasting with provisions varied and plentiful.
colonists continued the traditional holiday foods from England - -roast
beef and goose,
additional
important
plum pudding and mince pies - and Virginia contributed
delicacies.
Native wild turkeys,
ducks,
and venison became
items on Yuletide tables.
Local waters yielded a wide variety
of fish and shellfish for holiday feasts.
IN
Dinner offerings were surpassed only by the variety and quantity of
beverages.
Imported wines like Madeira and clarets ( bordeaux) counted as
favorites with meals.
Punches of rum or arrack, rum flip, and syllabub
were popular, as were French brandy, sherry, beer, ale, and Virginia
cider.
Toward the end of the century eggnog claimed its place among
holiday drinks.
Colonial boys followed the custom of " shooting in the Christmas,"
setting off their guns on Christmas Eve and morning,
extended into the nineteenth century.
this custom has not been found,
Though
explanation
of
the association of noise with joyous
occasions may be the reason for the " Christmas guns."
raising a joyful noise was with music,
old
and the practice
a definite
Virginia abounds with holly, cedar, live oak, mistletoe, ivy, bay,
and other plants appropriate for decorating in the holiday style.
With
greenery all around them, the colonists likely followed the English
custom of decking homes and churches with evergreens.
The Christmas tree was not introduced into Williamsburg until the
century.
In 1842 Charles Minnigerode,
CENTURY
Another way of
especially group singing of the
carols.
nineteenth
EIGHTN-
classics professor
at the College of William and Mary and political exile from Germany,
trimmed a tree with candles and fancy paper decorations for children at
A Bimonthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
WILAMSBURG
�the
St.
There are
George Tucker House. (
trees elsewhere in the Atlantic
states,
earlier
instances
of
Christmas
though none date from before 1800.)
Colonial -style decorations for the holidays are the aforesaid greenery,
possibly some fruits and nuts, pine cones, other natural objects and
candles,
but never colored lights,
shiny balls,
or tinsel.
Like the Christmas tree, some of our other holiday practices had their
origins in the nineteenth century.
Virginia,
though greetings
Christmas cards were unknown in colonial
and good wishes for the
season were extended
in
letters.
Gift giving in the eighteenth century was reserved for children
and servants who might receive some small luxury like confections, gloves,
or
coins.
This verse
colonial
from the Virginia Gazette captures the festive
spirit of a
Christmas:
Christmas is come,
Let
spits
turn
hang on the pot,
round and ovens be hot
Beef, pork, and poultry now provide
To feast thy neighbors at this tide.
Then wash all down with good wine and beer
and
SUGGESTED
Bullock,
SOURCES
Helen. "
Cookery ( CW,
Carson,
Jane.
Chambers,
R.
F.
so with Mirth conclude
ON
Year.
CHRISTMAS CUSTOMS:
Of Christmas in Virginia" in The Williamsburg Art of
1958).
Colonial Virginians at Play ( CW,
The Book of Days,
Volume
1965).
II ( London,
1881).
Christmas:
Its Origins and Associations ( London,
S. "
and Holidays"
Dawson,
W.
Morgan,
Edmund
Sandys,
Williams.
London,
COLONIAL
the
Houses
Christmastide,
in Virginians
Home (
CW,
1952).
Its History, Festivities and Carols
n. d.).
A MERRY
at
1902).
CHRISTMAS
TO ALL!
�rR
GH' vp
RRD
I
.
0
o
pMPHT,ET FILE
o
COPY
Questions
e
VOL.
1,
No.
Now
Staff
Answers
5
DECEMBER
that
Christmas
the
Assistant,
" How did
is
season
here,
Virginians
colonial
Lou
asked
we
celebrate
1980
Research
Powers,
m
Chr i stmas?"
NCO Ql.. Q Xl DviAA
Yr- e,
o
CO
1,
Christmas Day in the eighteenth century was more a holy day than our
twentieth- century
and
at
and
it
observed
colonials
closed
quietly in the home
interrupted for the
was
schooling
rn
X
slaves and servants enjoyed a day away from their labors if they
season;
be
could
The
holiday.
Businesses
church.
Attendance
spared.
the
at
parish
church
on
Christmas
morning
for
n
communion was expected because the Feast of the Nativity was the major
the
of
event
Anglican
From December
24
z
Twelfth Night,
through
friends,
Neighbors,
visitors.
fox
calendar.
kinsmen
and
January
gathered
6,
homes
for
filled with
parties,
c7
hunts.
At- home enterHospitality was the order of the season.
tainment emphasized
with
provisions varied and
plentiful.
The
feasting
colonists
continued
the traditional holiday foods from England-- roast
and
beef
and
goose,
plum
important
items
on
mince
and
pudding
Native
delicacies.
additional
r
dances,
Yuletide
wild
and
pies--
ducks,
turkeys,
tables.
Virginia
Go
contributed
and venison became
Local waters yielded a wide variety
of fish and shellfish for holiday feasts.
m
Dinner offerings were surpassed only by the variety and quantity of
beverages.
favorites
were
Imported
with
popular,
cider.
as
like Madeira
wines
Punches
meals.
French
were
of
rum
brandy,
and
or
( bordeaux)
clarets
arrack,
rum
beer,
sherry,
flip,
ale,
counted
and
syllabub
Virginia
and
as
rn
z
Toward the end of the century eggnog claimed its place among
holiday drinks.
Colonial
setting
into
extended
this
the
has
custom
may be
joyful
occasions
raising
boys
their
off
a
old
other
the
nineteenth
not
been
the
was
for
with
of
Eve
century.
found,
reason
noise
custom
Christmas
on
"
and
morning,
Though
a
the
association
the
" Christmas
music,
in
shooting
the
and
definite
of
group
Virginia
greenery
abounds
plants
all
with
holly,
of
joyous
around
them,
cedar,
live
for
in
oak,
singing
of
the
The Christmas tree was not introduced into Williamsburg until the
century.
In
1842
Charles Minnigerode,
classics
professor
at the College of William and Mary and political exile from Germany,
trimmed a tree with candles and fancy paper decorations for children at
A
Bimonthly Publication
of
the
Department
of
r
mistletoe,
the
custom of decking homes and churches with evergreens.
nineteenth
70
Another way of
ivy, bay,
With
decorating
holiday style.
the colonists likely followed the English
appropriate
z
practice
explanation
noise with
guns."
especially
Christmas,"
the
carols.
and
followed
guns
Interpretive
Education
ed
�the
St.
trees
George
Tucker House.
in
elsewhere
the
(
There
Atlantic
are
earlier
instances
though none
states,
date
of
Christmas
from before
1800.)
Colonial- style decorations for the holidays are the aforesaid greenery,
possibly
but
fruits
some
candles,
Like
origins
letters.
or
and
pine
nuts,
lights,
colored
Christmas
the
in
Virginia,
and
never
tree,
cones,
other
shiny balls,
natural
or
objects
and
tinsel.
some of our other holiday practices had their
Christmas cards were unknown in colonial
century.
though greetings and good wishes for the season were extended in
the
nineteenth
Gift giving in the eighteenth century was reserved for children
who might
receive
some
small
luxury like confections, gloves,
servants
coins.
This verse
colonial
from the Virginia Gazette
captures
the
festive
spirit
of
a
Christmas:
Christmas
is
Let
turn
spits
Beef,
pork,
hang on the pot,
come,
round
and
and
ovens
be
hot
poultry now provide
To feast thy neighbors at this tide.
Then wash
and
so
all
down with
Mirth
with
good wine
the
conclude
SUGGESTED SOURCES ON COLGNIAL CHRISTMAS
Bullock,
Helen.
Cookery (
Carson,
Jane.
Chambers,
R.
" Of
Colonial
The
W.
Morgan,
Edmund
Sandys,
Book
Williams.
London,
I.
CUSTOMS:
in Virginia"
in The Williamsburg Art of
1958) .
CW,
Dawson,
F.
Christmas
and beer
Year.
Virginians
Volume
Days,
of
at
Play ( CW,
II
Christmas:
Its
Origins
S.
and
Holidays"
"
Houses
Christmastide,
Its
1965) .
(
London,
and
1881) .
Associations ( London,
in Virginians
History,
at
Festivities
1902) .
Home ( CW,
and
1952) .
Carols
n. d.) .
A MERRY
CHRISTMAS
TO ALL
410
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 1, 1980
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/525352ae11678b953ea200401558af5b.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=lK1n0X8EZBqujuxCg3rLfznYzBU2AFiZc0k9sFxLBNZ26CMv2kLWP1T136CkBWDaKWaSVT6mGEMSzYtQr1jr9UHcX63l491zSyZWhx8nSNicFO1Z61J3ILFI%7EQchFvF%7ENhi3QQEme73h0kz0O4Snou7jRt6HSEtJ-S6DEPlhxe1MTIM3%7ERzV72c7LKZjUsuiI8isVkNpgqQA5iS4YrtUO1a93L7kSl0vYMgoeywUSEw0zgQXzBu%7E1-DDVJMSm3Jm0oeU3XxTmkcLywWLqa494cKxaxaDiPrzxK6FNH5vlfMJAr%7EaUU6fB2uJc5hGyGM7ehbewgS2WJuNnM4vDvvOOA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
c8429066d8a2021e0b362746932bf965
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Advices
JULY 1987
Oral History and Williamsburg' s Black Community:
Interviews with Mrs. Fannie Epps
From July to December 1986, Kathleen Bragdon
of the department of historical research conducted
oralhistory research with Mrs. Fannie Epps, a life
tenant in the Historic Area, who was born in Wil-
liamsburg in 1895. As a member of Williams butg' s black community and a descendant of a
long -established York County'family, Mrs. Epps's
memories tell us a great deal about little known
aspects oflocal black history and about the changes
thathave occurred in Williamsburg in the twentieth
century.
set in the informant' s home, and the oral historian has a prepared set of questions to ask.
All interviews should be tape recorded. The
new interviewer has many lessons to learn
about method. In general, it is best to inter-
view informants one at a time; interviews
done simultaneously with more than one informant become confusing, argumentative, or
contradictory. The interviewer must learn to
allow the informant time to formulate an answer and must not interrupt or contradict.
have tumed increasingly to studies of " hid-
Another difficult lesson to learn is when to
pursue a new avenue of inquiry brought out by
the interview and when to return to the origi-
den" segments of past societies to supple-
nal line of questioning.
ment and correct our vision of America' s past,
After the interview is completed, the tape recording must be transcribed, an arduous
task. The first transcription is often a shock to
both the interviewer and informant; most
people don' t realize how repetitive and ram-
In the past several decades as historians
oral history has been recognized as a significant tool for uncovering little known or unrecorded facts about everyday life. Although its
methods are different from those traditionally
employed by historians, oral history supple-
bling their conversation can be. Some inter-
ments, complements, and sometimes corrects
view transcriptions are edited to remove the
information derived from documentary re-
interviewer's inanities, repetitious remarks,
and interjections, but others are left in their
search.
The subjects researched by oral historians
include anything within the memories of their
original state. The advantage of the first
informants, who are often chosen because
their individual experiences, occupations, or
cription, while the advantage of the latter is its
longevity makes them repositories of forgot-
versation and a lower probability of accidental
ten information. Sometimes their knowledge
loss of information due to overediting.
is about ordinary subjects: how hogs were
slaughtered, what people ate for Saturday
was like. Often these informants were present
Some successful oral histories have been
collected from a single individual, while
others are based on the memories of several
people. Numerous case studies have demon-
at important events or were members of sig-
strated the surprising accuracy with which
night supper, what a country church service
method is the increased clarity of the transpreservation of the original flavor of the con-
nificant organizations, and their memories are
many people remember events, names, and
the only records of what took place. Oral his-
even dates for periods spanning several
tory is the history of the taken- for granted and
the history of those who left few or no written
records. It is also the history ofthe recent past.
decades.
Some
oral histories have been
known to describe accurately events dating
back a century or more, when those stories
The interview is the primary source for the
have been passed down between generations.
Joral historian. In most cases the interview is
continued, p. ii)
�grandparents, Fannie and George Howard.
Mrs. Epps, continued
The oral history technique, used successfully
by folklorists and anthropologists investigating non literate aboriginal American and Afri-
The following is an excerpt from an interview
with Mrs. Epps conceming her great- grandparents' cabin.
0
can cultures, has in recent decades been
shown to be equally effective in studying
KB: Can you describe for us again your great -
everyday life in our own society as well.
Particularly significant have been those oral
grandparents' cabin, which was out in York
histories of African-Americans, beginning
with Lynwood Montell' s groundbreaking
County?
FE: Well, it was a log cabin ...
log house,
I guess you could call it a cabin ... '
cause
Saga of Coe Ridge, written in 1973. In this
study Montell was able to re- create the lives of
it had one big room with a big fireplace.
the inhabitants of Coe Ridge in Cumberland
they used to paper them —not with wallpaper but with newspaper. And when I was
And the walls were of clay ...
County, Kentucky, using information from
interviews
taken
thirty
years
because
a child —the reason I remember it was
newspaper was I had just learned how to
after that
Appalachian community was abandoned.
Most recently the value of oral history re-
And I' d go around and read the
newspapers. And she [ Mrs. Epps' s great read ....
search has been reaffirmed in Charles Joyner' s
grandmother, Betsey Thornton] thought
Down by the Riverside, an ethnohistory of South
Carolina' s nineteenth century rice plantation
slaves. This study and others have provided
much information about the history of Afri-
that was just grand.
KB: Did they ever change that paper or was
it up there permanently?
FE: It stayed up there ... and as far as I
can- Americans in various parts of the South.
knew, they put it up there with a paste
Another group of African- Americans has
and cooked it
been perhaps less well studied. These are the
made of flour and water .. ,
Africans and African descendants who during
or something and spread it on there and put
the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
it up on the walls. And they didn' t put it in
were granted their freedom and settled in free
the water. They just put it up on the walls
KB: So it had a big fireplace and one large
black communities that had become common
in Virginia, North Carolina, and South Caro-
room downstairs.
FE: Yes. One thing that I remember, too,
lina by the outbreak of the Civil War. With the
exception of Timothy Breen' s recent ` dyne
about it was that it had a bed ...
and they
didn' t have mattresses like we have now. It
owne ground': Race and Freedom on ! Virginia's
Eastern Shore, these communities have not
was a quilted mattress. And so we had a
little stool and the bed was up high like
this. And I being a little child, I had to step
up on the stool. And then I' d fall over on
been arintensely analyzed, in part because
there is very little documentary evidence
available concerning them. Several such communitie s" existed in Virginia in the early
nineteenth century, and the lives of their
members and descendants can be partially illuminated through oral history research. In-
the bed. And the bed was made offeathers.
KB: Now was this bedroom the main room?
FE: The fireplace was in the center. The
bed was over there and the chest was over
formation about these communities can in
on this other side of the fireplace. And I
turn shed light on the later history of African -
used to like to get up on that stool and fall
Americans in the Tidewater.
Mrs. Fannie Epps, a life tenant in the
over in that bed ...
because it was all soft
George Reid House in Colonial Williamsburg' s
and everything. And you used to have to
make it up with a broomstick —you know,
Historic Area, is a descendant of members of a
a broom handle. And take it and beat it up
and smooth it out.
free black community in York County. Her
great grandparents, William and Betsey
Thornton, lived in the vicinity of Black
KB: Now, was there a loft above the main
Swamp, on lands now occupied by the Naval
FE: Yes, but I never went —I don' t remem-
floor?
I don' t
Weapons Station. Mrs. Epps was born in Wil-
ber ever going up in the loft ....
liamsburg on November 23, 1895, and
remembers as a small child being taken to visit
her great -grandparents who lived in a log
remember anything up in there at all. And I
cabin near Grove. The Thornton lived be-
from this log cabin. And we used to go
hind the " big house" owned by Mrs. Epps's
continued, p. iii)
didn' t go in the kitchen too much ...
be-
cause the spring was down the hill .. .
ii
J
�Mrs. Epps, continued
down to the spring ... to carry the
butter — in the spring in this tin bucket.
put
KB: Now what did the outside of the cabin
look like?
that family and remained with them until her
marriage to Henry Pierce. She and Henry
then
settled on Francis
Street, and their
children were regarded as part of the Hams
family as well. Mrs. Epps lived with the
FE: Just the logs. Just the logs and the
in between it. And it had a door.
clay ...
Harrises most of her young life and moved
permanently to Francis Street only when her
mother became ill in 1912 or 1913.
A big door.
The Thomtons' cabin was probably similar
Mrs. Epps remembers life at the Harris
house with great fondness. Sam Harris, the
to some that were photographed near Rich-
owner
mond
in the late
regarded as a leader and benefactor of the local
photographs
black community. His home, located above
the store at the site of the Davidson Shop, was
and
nineteenth
in
Newport News
century. ' These
depict interiors of one -room cabins papered
with
newspaper advertisements,
and
an
as-
of
a
profitable
general
store,
was
a gathering place for friends and family, and
sortment of furniture centered around a large
Mrs. Epps describes many a happy time at
fireplace. These photographs are now part of
the Cook Collection, some of which is located
at the Valentine Museum in Richmond and
Christmas and Easter, when the Harrises'
daughter
Elizabeth played
the
piano and
sings" were held. Young Fannie Pierce had
some at the Colonial Williamsburg Founda-
the run of the store and was allowed to sneak
tion Library. A number of these have also
peanuts and other goodies from the bins that
been
ranged along one wall.
published in Lawrence Kocher and
Howard Dearstyne' s Shadows in Silver and
John Vlach' s The Afro American Tradition in
DecorativeArts.
Mrs. Thornton was bom in the early 1800s,
according to Mrs. Epps, but had never been a
She remembers too being sent on errands
up Duke of Gloucester Street, sometimes to
Miss Mullins' s Store located in what is now
Merchants Square. She was told, she recalls,
to stay away from the `rowdy comer" at Colo-
slave. She had worked before her marriage for
nial and Duke of Gloucester streets, where
a family by the name of Henley, also residents
patrons of one of the saloons would gather.
Oof York County. Her daughter, Fannie Thorn-
Fannie visited her parents' home on Francis
ton Howard, who was born before 1860, was a
midwife. Fannie' s husband, George Howard,
Street daily and helped her mother and
brothers with many daily chores. Her mother
was employed as a plasterer. They lived in a
worked as a laundress, and her father worked
framed
at Eastern State Hospital. Among the tasks
house near the Thomtons'
cabin,
which, based on Mrs. Epps' s descriptions,
Fannie' s mother performed daily was drawing
was probably the standard folk " I" house, the
water from a backyard well to fill two enor-
two story, " two - ver -wo" structure with a
o
t
central hall built throughout the late eigh-
mous tubs, which were kept on the boil, both
teenth and nineteenth centuries in this
region. Like their white and black neighbors,
the Howards kept a kitchen garden and raised
cleaned the oil lamps, brought in wood, and
chickens, guinea hens, cows, and hogs.
between the World Wars remind us that there
summer and winter, for washing. Fannie
watched the younger children.
Mrs. Epps' s recollections of Williamsburg
Her family attended nearby St. John' s
were in reality two separate communities
Baptist Church. Some supplies were pur-
then, the black and the white. This excerpt
chased at a local store, but many were brought
describes the " eating houses" or restaurants
out to the rural families by their relatives living in town. Mrs. Epps recalls that when she
was a little girl living in Williamsburg, she was
taken by horse and wagon down to York
County, carrying tea and coffee, cloth, and
other such staples and bringing back in return
country products like vegetables, fruits, eggs,
owned and patronized by Williamsburg' s
and milk.
In the late 1870s Mrs. Epps' s mother, Sarah
black residents in the 1920s and ' 30s.
FE: We had eating houses. I wouldn' t call
them restaurants because they —beef
stew, and beans, and ... .
KB: You called them eating houses?
FE: [ laughter] Yeah.
KB: Where were they?
Howard, came to Williamsburg to act as nurse
FE: Well, there was one right down here
to the children of Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Harris.
somewhere that had a restaurant —Mr.
l She soon became an " adopted" daughter of
continued, p. iv)
�Mrs. Epps, continued
forebears span a period of nearly two hundred
years, all spent in and near Williamsburg. " I
Crutchfield had a restaurant.
laugh," she says, " when I read about someone
KB: Was he a black man?
FE: Uh huh. Tall.
saying they've lived here twenty five, thirty five years and saying they know what Williamsburg was like —I' ve lived here ninety-
KB: And he had a restaurant?
FE: He had a restaurant.
KB: Do you remember what it was called?
FE: And the Cramps had a restaurant.
one years."
Mrs. Epps' s memories of stories told to her
Right across the street here.
by her great-grandparents and grandparents
KB: Did the restaurants have names?
tell us things about the life of free blacks in the
FE: We just called it Cramp' s Restaurant.
nineteenth century which are nowhere recorded, and her own experiences tell us a
KB: Did you call the other one Crutchfield' s Restaurant?
great deal about how the lives of African -
FE: Yeah. Down at Confusion Corner.
Americans in eastern Virginia have changed
KB: What kind of food did they serve?
during the past century. She is the kind of
FE: Beef stew, and beans, and chitlings, and
laughter].
informant oral historians dream about but
seldom find.
KB: But why did you say it wasn' t really
like a restaurant? It sounds like it was.
FE: It was —it was a restaurant. It was really
Recommended Reading
a restaurant, but some of them didn' t have
a room as big as this. And they had tables in
there, but you know—
Barbara Allen and Lynwood Montell. From
KB: Did they have a waiter or waitresses or
Memory to History: Using Oral Sources in
Local Historical Research. Nashville, 1981.
something?
FE: Yeah. They' d have some waitresses.
Willa K. Baum. Oral History for the Local
Historical Society. Nashville, 1971.
Another example of the distinctiveness of
David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum. Oral
History: An
the black community was the existence of
organizations whose primary function was to
Interdisciplinary
Anthology.
Nashville, 1983.
provide aid in times of sickness. One of these,
A. Lawrence Kocher and Howard Dearstyne.
known as the Household of Ruth, met at the
Shadows in Silver: A Record of Virginia,
1850 - 1900...
old Oddfellows' building on Nicholson Street.
New York, 1954.
Members paid dues and also provided food
and care for other members and their families.
Charles Joyner. Down by the Riverside. Urbana,
These societies, as well as church organiza-
Lynwood Montell. The Saga of Coe Ridge.
Ill., 1986.
Knoxville, 1970.
tions, provided the bulk of what poor relief
John M. Vlach. The Afro-American Tradition in
and public aid was available for blacks in the
early decades of the twentieth century.
Decorative Am. Cleveland, 1978.
Fannie Pierce married Frederick Epps on
October 15, 1917. She had completed seven
In celebration of James City County' s
Tercentennial, a number oforal histories were
recorded and are now being transcribed.
These will eventually be published. In the
meantime, audio cassettes of oral history interviews with Mrs. Epps and other long time
residents are available at the Williamsburg
Regional Library.
years of schooling and taken some courses
toward a teaching degree. She gave up teaching when her children were bom: Federick,
Jr., in 1918; Henry in 1919; Warren in 1921;
and Roland in 1927. She, her husband, and
their surviving sons have worked for Colonial
Williamsburg. Henry Epps died in 1938 and
Frederick, Sr., in 1961. Fred, Jr. retired in
1983, and Warren in 1982. Roland Epps is
currently special functions manager at the
An occasional supplement to The Interpreter newsletter,
Cascades.
Fred Adnices is the coordinated effort of Colonial Wil-
Today, at age 91, Mrs. Epps works as a
foster grandmother for the
liamsburg' s research departments.
Editor: Lou Powers
Norge school
EditorialBoard:: Barney Barnes, John Caramia,
George Collins, Liza Gusler, Cathy Hellier,
system and remains an active member of the
First Baptist Church. Her own life and her
Dennis O' Toole, Jane Strauss, and Bill Tramposch.
memories of stories told to her by her
iv
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, July, 1987
Description
An account of the resource
Oral History and Williamsburg's Black Community: Interviews with Mrs. Fannie Epps
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/88dda856ff696f1ddaa03a3dd4bcf58b.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=sWmSiY17r8gt1RQ-tspV9d6S7AInSN8N1KnBCARZjbUFIP27wcs7BmuLAQBySuLM1pUSUJt5DrbCDEaxf-2bJ8ihvJJV7sBqe5vy1LSVG5i8lPgpAqevGYhQW6Hn6GI3tUetR9cH3aiqsU-1SNSQMAeuXZsLXGaRvQk4UQuJI9fmUq2nCFINJmNlPrR-9bGL20mV3LzBWvgEVMWRvbwJuaNlMBB4BkTQnaFMgCK2qAugj7SXNI3oiSGfqekjzHE6xtuqrQRflWvqGZtobu2EkjLbX7fmDiAS7Pj8TtoG21rtfiYfUGTld6gzjZhHHz9yaHtznlErI8eyPQETkuG0pw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
8c903925e69e1626dae12c5117dc4d2d
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Advises
MAY 1986
Who Is Grissell Hay and
What Is She Doing at
Archibald Blair's House?
New Names for Old Williamsburg
Buildings
From Old to New
By Edward Chappell axe Patricia Gibbs
After the Guidebook Committee recommended several
Those not yet accustomed to the small indus-
trial revolution going on behind the James
Anderson House, the current emphasis on
name changes to the Historic Area Standards and Practices Committee, Edward Chappell, Patricia Gibbs, and
Nicholas Pappas were asked to review documentary,
architectural, and archaeological evidence and submit a
black - hite relations, or the reinterpretation
w
list of possible changes. A joirit meeting of the HASP and
Program Planning and Review committees considered
of life at the Palace may greet a raft of Historic
the list and recommended a number of changes to the
Area name changes with apprehension. Re-
moving William Byrd from the Lightfoot
president. Last winter Mr. Longsworth approved the following changes:
House some years ago was not very reassuring,
From
To
but why has he now reappeared three blocks
James Anderson
Anderson' s
away at the Griffin House? What has hap pened- to- Congressman Samuel Griffin, or to
Forges
Archibald Blair
House
Blacksmith Shop
Grissell Hay
Lodging House
Judge James Semple who has lost his home to
Bracken House
Bracken Tenement
William Finnie? Why
displaced by George
Norton by someone
Who in the world is
Bracken Carter
Richard Crump
has John Draper been
Davenport and John
named Roscow Cole?
Grissell Hay and how
could she possibly have run a lodging house in
bald Blair?
In short, why is the familiar nomenclature,
of Williamsburg being disrupted by more than
twenty major changes, with a profound effect
maps,
House
Carter - oir
M
James Moir
House
Carter' s Grove
Information Center
House
McCrea
Stable
signs,
publications,
and
psyches
linked to the Williamsburg scene? Recently
the Historic Area Standards and Practices
Committee
asked
an
architect,
an
archi-
tectural historian, and an historian to review
names of buildings and recommend possible
changes. House names had not received a
comprehensive review for over fifty years.
Behind these changes, which go into effect
this summer, is a solid historical background
available to few other American communities,
a situation that is due to the extraordinary
continued, p. ii)
Courthouse of 1770
The Courthouse
Custis -Maupin House
Custis Tenement
Elkanah Deane Shop
the genteel quarters long ascribed to Archi-
on
House
Elkanah Deane
and Forge
Harness Shop
Draper House
George Davenport House
Greenhow- Repiton
Greenhow
House
Greenhow Repiton
Brick Office
Tenement
Greenhow Brick
Office
Griffin House
William Byrd III House
Marot' s Ordinary
Moir Shop
Nicolson' s Shop
James Moir Shop
Nicolson Kitchen
Nicolson' s Shop
Norton - ole House
C
Roscow Cole House
Pasteur - alt
G
Pasteur & Galt
Apothecary Shop
Shields Tavem
Nicolson' s Store
Apothecary Shop
Pitt-Dixon House
George Pitt House
Powell Waller House
Benjamin Powell House
Redwood Ordinary
Booker Tenement
Scrivener House
Scrivener Store
Semple House
Waters- Coleman House
William Finnie House
William Waters House
�Name Changes, continued
Whatever its moral implications, the careful
amount of detailed research Williamsburg
use of Williamsburg blacksmith Hugh Orr's
properties have undergone over the last fifty-
name seemed entirely appropriate until the
1960s, when archaeological investigations re-
five years.
Like the Palace refumishing, the new
vealed that the present house was built about
group of name changes refines the clarity of
our interpretation and removes some of the
result of this finding, the house was renamed
anachronistic
for George Reid, who acquired the property
ambiguities
1790, a quarter-century after Orr's death. As a
of earlier choices.
As at the Palace, a half-century-long tradition
from Catherine Orr's estate in 1789.
of change precedes this step.
New names were given to some buildings in
the initial years of the restoration. After
near the Williamsburg Inn was known locally
eighteenth - entury framing was discovered
c
Byrd was applied in 1933. Initial research
inside the Raleigh Hotel, for example, it was
showed that William Byrd III purchased a
restored and called Market Square Tavern in
1931. The first attempt to create a consistent
brick house built by William Allen about
The large brick house on Francis Street
as the Coke House until the name William
1772, and it was assumed to be this house. In
response the name was changed to the Allen -
system for naming Williamsburg buildings began in 1933 when eighty recommendations
Byrd House. In the early 1970s researchers
were made by the Department of Research
and Record to the Committee on Naming Res-
recognized that-this house had been confused
toration Buildings consisting of the Reverend
W. A. R. Goodwin, lawyer Vernon Geddy,
end of Francis Street, and the Allen - yrd
B
architect Thomas Mott Shaw, and historian
Harold Shurtleff. Recommendations adopted
House. The change from the Griffin House to
in the early thirties included changing the
where he belongs and, in the process, dis-
Powder Hom to the Powder Magazine, the
places the post -Revolutionary owner Samuel
Neal House to the James Geddy House, and
Griffin.
with the smaller brick dwelling at the west
House was properly renamed the Lightfoot
the William Byrd III House finally puts Byrd
continued, p. iii)
Kinnamon' s Store to the Sign of the Golden
Ball. Through the years some of the 1933
names have given way to later findings and
changing perspectives.
The-large -gentry house near the north end
of Palace Street has had a particularly unsettled history of twentieth century names. Very
early in the restoration the Saunders House
acquired the name of Lieutenant Govemor
Robert Dinwiddie, who lived there for about a
1933 Principles for
year when alterations were underway at the
Palace. In 1933 it became the Dinwiddie-
Naming Buildings
Carter House in order to include a valid reference to Councillor Robert Carter, who resided
I.
Houses should be named after most famous colonial
there from 1761 to 1772. Eventually the brevity of Dinwiddie' s tenancy was acknowl-
2.
If no famous or locally well - nown colonial name is
k
edged,
and the
person who lived in them or built them.
connected with a house, use the name of the
earliest colonial owner or builder.
name was changed to the
Double names should be avoided except when.rthis
Carter-Saunders House, again making refer-
would mean not being able to use a well known
ence to Robert Saunders, president ofWilliam
colonial name at all. No triple names should be
and Mary at the beginning of the nineteenth
used.
century. There had long been a desire to avoid
4.
If a house has a well established colonial name al-
ready —which does not violate any of these prin-
nineteenth -century associations, however,
and the name finally settled down to the
ciples— it should be retained.
5.
6.
Robert Carter House in 1968. It now seems
All modem and recently given names should be
If there is a choice of two names use the name of the
avoided.
unlikely to change again.
best known of the two families involved, or the
The early committee in charge of house
family that has the most living representatives.
names exercised both imagination and discre-
7.
S.
tion in labeling Hugh Orr' s house; they delicately chose to call it Captain Orr' s Dwelling.
No avoidable duplication of names.
The use of as many Williamsburg and Virginia names
as possible.
ii
�Name Changes, continued
In other ways, too, the current changes are
work place as a blacksmith shop rather than as
a forge, so the new name for the reconstruc-
simply a continuation of corrections and clar-
tion nearing completion reflects the former.
ifications that have taken place over the last
The term " forges,"
half century. The name Redwood Ordinary
has clung tenaciously to the unrestored frame
worked on the project, will be officially
dropped. Moving the blacksmith operations
house near the gaol on the north side of
to this location allows the vacated site to be
Nicholson Street, although as early as 1933
renamed the Elkanah Deane Hamess Shop.
dear to all who have
Shurtleff recognized that it was a misnomer.
The Federal style brick house on Market
Recent dendrochronology corroborates the
documentary evidence that carpenter Richard
Booker built the house about 1824. Accounts
Square was built by merchant Roscow Cole
about 1812, replacing a frame store owned by
John Hatley Norton. Thus it is immanently
show he rented it to a series of tenants begin-
rational to refer to it as the Roscow Cole
ning in 1825. Acknowledging this fact, the
House, rather than. to include a reference to
name has been changed to the Booker Tene-
Norton, who never saw the present building.
Similarly, the Archibald Blair House is now
recognized as a relatively late colonial struc-
ment.
Robert Nicholson moved his store and
From several sources we know that his store
ture, unquestionably built after Blair's death
in 1735. Apothecary Peter Hay owned the
house briefly until his death in 1766. Two
was located in the surviving eighteenth -
years later his widow, Grissell, who continued
century building facing the street and the
shop in the reconstructed building to the rear.
to live in the house, advertised " very com-
New names clarify this arrangement: the
men."
principal
Glassford preferred her lodging house,
though it is rather out of the way," to the
Raleigh. The widow Hay lived until 1778, and
her length of tenure and use of the property
are reflected in the building' s new name, the
Grissell Hay Lodging House.
The current policy of employing building
tailor's shop to the north side of Duke of
Gloucester Street near the Raleigh in 1774.
building
becomes
Nicholson' s
Store, not shop, and the rear building is identified as a shop rather than a kitchen.
James Anderson consistently referred to his
modious lodgings to be let for a dozen gentle-
In the
mid -1770s merchant James
names that reflect pre- 1780 occupants and
uses whenever possible accounts for George
Davenport edging out John Draper and William Finnie' s name being attached to the
house long associated with James Semple.
No historical interpretation is entirely ob-
1986 Policy for Naming
jective, and the new choices of names reflect
Historic Area Buildings
1.
some perspectives that are simply different
Foremost, building names should reflect the period
to which a structure has been restored or reconstructed and the period which is interpreted.
2.
When possible, building names should reflect pre1780 owners or occupants and uses unless the
appearance of the structure dates from a later
period or the earliest known owners or occupants
are post -1780 ( the dam the capital moved to Richmond).
3.
When a particular individual owned or occupied the
building for an extended period, the building
should carry his or her first and last names. When
several members of a family owned the building
for a number of years, the family' s last name
should be used alone.
4.
Hyphenated names should be avoided except when
more than one family was associated with a build-
ing for extended periods and their association has
comparable
relevance to the era of restoration/
reconstruction or interpretation.
However,
more than two names should be used
no
from those of previous generations. The 1933
committee' s guidelines for naming buildings
reveal a considerably greater concern for
celebrity. Two principles, for example, stated
that " houses should be named after [the] most
famous colonial person who lived in them or
built them" and " if there is a choice of two
names use the name of the best known of the
two families involved, or the family that has
the most living representatives."
Williamsburg was widely recognized as a
place of historical importance as early as the
middle of the nineteenth century, but its position in the national consciousness and viability
as a travel destination were far less assured in
1933 than now. In the 1930s reverence for the
continued, p. iv)
�Some hyphenated names have been eliminated and the houses renamed for the most
Name Changes, continued
American past was relatively new and limited.
In many ways, early researchers and architects
played the role of proselytizers, believing it
appropriate owner. Examples include chang-
ing the Carter Moir House to the James Moir
House, the Greenhow Repiton House to the
Greenhow Tenement, and the Waters- Cole-
necessary to convince the public that this was
indeed a very historic place. Thus it appeared
more crucial to associate Govemor Dinwiddie
man House to the William Waters House. In
with Robert Carter' s House,— or pursuing a
Christopher Wren. There are contemporary
replacing the hyphen with an ampersand in
the name of the Pasteur & Galt Apothecary
Shop, we used the punctuation mark employed by the apothecaries in signing their
parallels in other American cities where visit-
advertisements in the Virginia Gazette.
more
tenuous
connection —to
rename
the
main building at William and Mary for Sir
All this should not suggest that the applica -.
ing generals and poets have been given equal
tion of historic names need be a rigid process,
billing with long -erm residents.
t
intolerantly casting aside all those historic .
Today the historical significance of Williamsburg is secure, and Americans' views of
their history have broadened. It now seems
characters who fail to fit the focus of the mo-
more important to offer a balanced portrait of
cate buildings' long histories, and they seem
life in the community than to emphasize our
too
links with prominent early Virginians. In-
Paradise House was more intimately associated with the Paradise family after the Rev-
ment. Some familiar hyphenated names indi-
creasingly, we recognize that large numbers of
evocative
to
replace.
The
Ludwell-
ordinary people rented houses or rooms, and
olution than it was with its colonial owners,
that the documented role of tenements re-
and the Galt family occupied the Nelson Galt
quires exposition. For over sixty years, John
Custis and his descendants rented out property at the comer of Palace Street and Duke of
House from 1812 until the early 1980s.
Gloucester Street. As a result, the reconstructed Custis Maupin House is now more
Only the story-and -a -half westem section of
properly identified as the Custis Tenement,
Retaining the Garrett name recognizes the
family that made architecturally significant
additions in the early nineteenth century.
The name of the Coke Garrett House re-
mains unchanged for an additional reason.
the house dates from John Coke' s period.
losing its association with nineteenth- and
early twentieth - entury owners. The Bracken
c
Like the 1933 effort, the present reassessment of Historic Area names is intended as a
House on Francis Street was owned by John
Bracken from about 1785 to 1806. Since it was
a rental property rather than his residence, the
comprehensive, consistent effort to suggest
term tenement is again appropriate.
the most useful associations known from the
Equally important for developing a credible
portrait of the community is clarity about what
fragmentary records. Opportunities for inter-
period is being interpreted. Perhaps the most
prominent example is the 1981 refurnishing of
would be naive to assume that ours is the last
the Palace to reflect Lord Botetourt' s well -
cant aspect of the continuing reassessment of
documented tenure. The temporal focus of
interpretation at the Powell Waller House has
life in the eighteenth - entury town. Such
c
activities —respectfully weighing but always
recently been sharpened to reflect the Benjamin Powell family around 1770. The new emphasis is reinforced by changing the name to
questioning conventional wisdom —can en-
pretive development will continue, and it
word. Nevertheless, we believe it is a signifi-
sure a lively, healthy history.
the Benjamin Powell House, removing the
reference to the Waller family, who owned the
property after 1791.
Current plans for a fourth operating tavem
call for Marot' s Ordinary to be shown as it
existed when occupied by James Shields,
An occasional supplement to The Interpreter newsletter,
whose extensive 1750 room - - om invenby m
tory survives. The present reconstruction represents an extensively developed building
Fresh Aduices is the coordinated effort of Colonial Williamsburg's research departments.
Editor: Lou Powers
Editorial Board: Barbara Beaman, John Caramia,
George Collins, Liza Gusler, Dennis O' Toole,
well beyond John Marot' s era, and the name
Jane Strauss, and Bill Tramposch.
Shields Tavem is clearly more relevant to
these conditions.
iv
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, May, 1986
Description
An account of the resource
Who Is Grissell Hay and What Is She Doing at Archibald Blair's House?: New Names for Old Williamsburg Buildings
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/268ceccdc5af4f48b677be0b3494c97c.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=lq3BAzgNA7v75M5S22cBc1rqA-G02KuI0TDWutTCPi8XfygLb7xaPxUPMJVWb9qSdadGyl9vtWNkzd-QJIZyIkWvLpn7qyW86hty88sgrbRnq52AoVBzYRAm%7EEEcAFrSNu%7E15UaIu%7EWnzdLzNGAcOPVNRbKKHUKKdCw6l5Jg5lA44EAvdKJQwINNHXB3qp4ZcjDCUR0JUPiHEhDAZMfOXl90jjNAwgTd6JGNds%7EpyKY8ckfq%7EKIFy4CB-bhVbuZAkh%7ED-oZYwQDR-NBUsWdKkojoUsO6TAbOAGIZM-yYP4gIJG99N7Ek%7ESPohx52i2s126Uz9JRn5-YV8BzbaSvPlg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
fb34c70380034d1c81b61fbab6bcdfd9
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Advices
JULY 1985
Interpreters and the
Decorative Arts Gallery
by Liza Gusler
The Wallace Gallery should prove an invaluable study tool for all interpreters at Colonial Williamsburg. The decorative arts on display and the interpretive exhibits provide a
particular interest, he or she might view the
complement to the period shops and house
where a large case is devoted to dining utensils.
museums in the Historic Area. The gallery
will assist us in both learning and teaching
Decorated cooking tools —spit jacks, wrought
about the eighteenth century.
skillets —are displayed in this gallery; they
prints of dining rooms, tea drinking, taverns,
and kitchens. From the print gallery he can
proceed to the adjacent metals study gallery,
iron toasters and waffle irons, and bell metal
demonstrate that utensils can be ornamental
One of the first " study stations" that interpreters will want to visit is the print study
as well as useful.
gallery. Here, for the first time, eighteenth -
D
Dining accoutrements are displayed here as
century prints, which curators have used in
well. Silver, bone, and agate -handled flat-
documenting the appearance of our period
interiors and other researchers have mined for
ware, pewter tankards, porringers, and plates,
their wealth of information about eighteenth-
continued, p. ii)
copper coffee and chocolate pots fill the cases.
century life, will be available for viewing in
large numbers. Margaret Pritchard, curator for
exhibition buildings and prints and maps, has
organized the prints by subject matter, creat-
ing convenient access to those depicting a host
of eighteenth- century topics and objects. A
few of the many categories include architec-
Humphrey Harwood,
Williamsburg Builder
ture, interiors ( kitchens, taverns, bedchambers,
shops, and so forth), costume, courtship, ob-
Betty Leviner, curatorialfellow, has done consid-
ject usage, and diversions such as dance, thea-
erable research on Humphrey Harwood. Here she
ter, and music.
gives us a brief biography of Humphrey and his
These prints, mostly English, offer an inti-
family.
mate, detailed view of eighteenth -century
If it were not for his ledger book, Hum-
life. They are the pictorial record of how
servants, patrons and
phrey Harwood would be one of many Wil-
tradesmen— lived. They depict the spaces in
which they lived and worked and illustrate the
liamsburg craftsmen of whom we know little
people —gentry and
beyond their names and a few isolated facts
culled from the Virginia Gazette. Because of
arrangement and use of fumishings in a way
impossible for an inventory listing to evoke.
the remarkable survival of his ledger, how-
them serve as a focal point of his exploration of
ever, we know more about Harwood' s day -today life than any other eighteenth-century
Williamsburg craftsman. The ledger, known
the museum. If, for instance, foodways-
as Ledger B to distinguish it from the now lost
An interpreter may choose any one of
dozens of topical groupings of prints and have
continued, p. iii)
preparation, service, dining customs —are a
i
�The dining theme can be further explored
Gallery, continued
Tea, chocolate, and coffee were introduced to
in the Masterworks Gallery, where objects of
the Westem world in the mid seventeenth
particular aesthetic distinction are arranged in ` )
century; they necessitated the development
both of new social ceremonies and of decora-
a stylistic chronology. Chelsea porcelain teapots in the shape of jolly Chinamen represent
tive art forms. Western shapes for teapots, tea
the
cups, and coffeepots evolved throughout the
sparked by the tea trade. Two Williamsburg -
Westem fascination with the Orient
eighteenth century, changing with stylistic
made tea tables are among the superlative
trends. The metals and ceramics galleries,
which flow into each other, showcase vessels
for the consumption of these beverages, as
objects in this central gallery. One table de-
well as stronger spirits. The interpreter can
elegance of Chinese furniture. The other
table, with more exuberant pierced decora-
scended in the Galt family here. Made in the
late baroque style, it exhibits the restrained
compare silver and ceramic coffee and tea-
pots, for instance, and see that frequently the
tion typical of the rococo period, was made in
same forms appear in both media.
Stylistic changes will be evident in objects
the Anthony Hay Shop about 1770 and has a
made from the late seventeenth to the late
tea tables, both rectangular and of the round
eighteenth centuries. The thematic exhibit,
tilt top form, may be seen in the furniture
history in the Byrd family of Virginia. Other
Patron and Tradesman: The Forces That
study gallery.
of period
After rigorous scrutiny of objects created for
pleasurable dining, the interpreter may well
styles from baroque designs of the late 1600s
want some refreshment. If so, he could go
through the rococo era to the neoclassic style
down to the lower court, where a small cafe
of the late 1700s. Studying that chronological
offers light meals —or perhaps a cup of tea?
grouping of objects will enable interpreters to
objects displayed in the study galleries. After
Nearby an exhibit called " Dining in Eighteenth- Century Virginia" interprets objects
used for dining in Williamsburg. It incorpo-
examining objects there, the interpreter will
rates shards excavated at Williamsburg sites, -
better understand such things as the stylistic
distinction between the pear-shaped teapot
shown with matching antique objects, and reobjects with a Virginia provenance (such
lates _
from
eighteenth
as Lucy Burwell' s silver tea service and a
century and the attenuated, classically inspired
garden bench from Blandfield plantation) to
coffeepot of the 1790s.
documentary sources describing dining rituals
The " Patron and Tradesman" exhibit,
which interpreters heard Graham Hood discuss
in the colony. A letter describing a dinner at
during Core Curriculum, will also explain
technological innovations of the period. For
instance ( still investigating our hypothetical
dining theme) the tradesman part of the ex-
tries regarding drinking tea with the governor,
hibit explores the development of the process
people in their understanding of regional,
Fashion Objects," contains a style progression
case
that
explains
the
evolution
better comprehend aesthetic differences in
the
first
quarter of the
Shirley plantation, William Byrd' s diary enand inventory references all furtherourunderstanding of local dining customs.
The gallery will obviously benefit craftsstylistic,
of making " Sheffield plate," a cheaper version of the silver look, created by fusing sheet
and
cost
variations
within
their
silver to copper. This technical innovation
trades. Artisans in the Hay Shop, for example,
will be able to use the furniture study gallery
paralleled
the popularity of the neoclassic
style in the last third of the eighteenth cen-
to
tury, so many Sheffield plate objects were
antecedents of colonial craftsmanship. Such
comparisons are not readily possible in exhibition buildings, especially as they now are
compare
New
England
furniture
with
southem products and to study the English
made in designs inspired by the excavations at
Pompeii. A case in the metals study gallery
displays Sheffield plate dining accessories.
furnished with the appropriate English and
Virginia made furniture that was there in the
An innovation in ceramic wares of the same
period was transfer printing, a cheaper form of
decoration than hand painting. The process is
eighteenth century.
explained in the tradesman exhibit, and ex-
opportunity to view costumes, needlework,
amples of the technique are displayed in the
and household textiles in the textile gallery.
continued, p. iv)
Students of textile arts will appreciate the
ceramics study area.
ii
J
�Harwood, continued
to his personal life. The first of these is the
Ledger A and subsequent Ledgers C and D,
nspans the period 1776 to the early 1790s.
birth of a daughter, Elizabeth (called Betsy in
Ledger B) on November 24, 1765, according
Harwood died in 1788, but his son William
to the Bruton Parish Register. From this and
kept Ledgers B, C, and D open until the
later entries, we know that Harwood' s wife
mid 90s to close out individual accounts.)
was named Sarah. Three years later the Har-
While primarily a business document, Ledger
woods became the parents of a son William on
B nonetheless permits personal glimpses of
March 7, 1768. The following year on January
Harwood and his family on occasion. This
10, Harwood purchased from Dudley and
information, coupled with the scant references
Frances Digges lots 33 and 39, roughly the
available in other primary sources, allows us to
present sites of Binns and United Virginia
assemble
Bank in Merchants Square. ( This deed un-
a
brief
biographical
sketch
of
Humphrey Harwood.
Harwoods appeared in Virginia records as
fortunately has disappeared.) These three
events were followed by the births of other
early as the first quarter of the seventeenth
children.
century, although the first Humphrey Harwood showed up by the 1650s. Tracing the
On July 12, 1770, a second son, also named
Humphrey, was bom. For the next nine years
Harwood family is made no easier because so
few records survive for Warwick County, the
the parish records list no births to the Har-
woods, but then probably in 1778 ( the register
area in which Harwood' s ancestors settled.
is unclear) a daughter Frances was bom, fol-
Humphrey as well as William continued to be
lowed by another daughter Mary, nicknamed
Polly, in 1784. There was one more child in
the family, possibly bom before 1765 when
Harwood settled in Williamsburg; thus, the
popular first names with the family throughout the eighteenth century.
0
The Humphrey Harwood who appeared in
Williamsburg during the mid -1760s was probably the orphan by that name mentioned in
the Warwick County Minute Book, 17481762. In 1750 John Levelling was appointed
by the court as guardian of " Humphrey
Harwood Orphan of Humphrey Harwood de-
birth would not have been included in the
Bruton Parish Register. This child was likely
another girl, since only the two boys are
mentioned by name in Harwood' s will. But
we know there were six Harwood children,
another orphan of Humphrey
because the father's obituary states that he
was survived by six children.
By 1770 Harwood was a well- established
figure in Williamsburg. Professionally, he had
Harwood. Since William' s name appears be-
several irons in the fire. In addition to the
fore Humphrey' s, William may have been the
usual
older of the two. Later on in the same minute
building and rebuilding chimneys, repoinring
book we learn that Humphrey signed an in-
brick, repairing grates, and even on occasion
denture of apprenticeship with Thomas
Gibbs, Jr., on February 5, 1756. While I have
moving entire buildings, Harwood also rented
out his slaves for daily work and raised livestock and grain on his James City County
plantation for the Williamsburg market. He
c[ ease] d."
Earlier that same year Edmund
Curtis had been named guardian of William
Harwood,
been unable to trace Thomas Gibbs, he most
probably was a brickmason, given Harwood' s
profession in Williamsburg.
The next definite piece of information con-
brickmason
chores,
which included
was a subscriber to the Virginia Gazette ( see
folio 8, Ledger B) and frequented Williams -
cerning Harwood professionally is an apprenticeship indenture with Hubbard Watkins
dated November 17, 1766, in the York County
records. This document describes Harwood as
he also belonged to the Williamsburg Lodge
being " of Warwick County," although from
of Masons, which he joined in 1773. The
other information it seems he was already liv-
lodge' s minutes show that Harwood held sev-
ing in Williamsburg. Watkins turns up in
eral
Ledger B as one of Harwood' s employees later
warden, in the lodge whose meetings took
on.
D
burg' s tavems ( see folio 15, Ledger B, where
place the first Tuesday of each month at 6: 00
P. M. His civic responsibilities included jury
It is during this period that Harwood' s life
in Williamsburg began, and, starting in the
1760s, it is possible to pick up threads relating
he lent William Nicolson six shillings at the
Raleigh). A member of Bruton Parish Church,
offices,
such
as
steward
and
senior
and militia duty, as well as providing food and
continued, p. iv)
�Gallery, continued
Rotating selections of samplers, costume ac-
County records, however, raise a disquieting
cessories, and domestic textiles such as car-
month Harwood drew up his will. In it he left
pets and counterpanes will allow close scrutiny
his plantation in James City County to Wil-
of techniques of fabric production, decora-
liam and all his houses and lots in Williams-
note in August 1788. On the 25th of that
burg to Humphrey. The rest of his children,
tion, and assemblage.
Silversmiths, brass founders, and black-
who were not named in the will, were left to
smiths will find the metal objects a valuable
divide equally the rest of Harwood' s real and
personal property when William reached " the
source for study and design inspiration. Members of the Company of Colonial Performers
Age of Twenty one years should it Be his
Desire."
should find the prints and portraits throughout
Three months later Harwood' s obituary ap-
the gallery a source for understanding the ap-
stores will enjoy prints of shops and see among
peared in the Virginia Gazette and Weekly Advertiser. He died on Sunday, November 23,
1788, " after a long and painful illness" and
was survived by " a disconsolate widow, and
six hopeless children." On the day of his
the objects many prototypes for their repro-
father' s death, William, one of the two ex-
duction wares.
ecutors of the estate ( Robert Andrews being
the other), took an inventory of Harwood' s
pearance and mannerisms of eighteenth cen-
tury people. Visitor aides might particularly
appreciate prints of street scenes and outdoor
settings, while employees of Historic Area
These ideas are only the briefest sugges-
personal property. This shows Harwood to
have been relatively well off. His belongings
included, among other furnishings, three card
tions of ways that interpreters might use the
Wallace Gallery as a study tool. We encourage
all interpreters to avail themselves of the
tables, two desks, a bookcase, an easy chair,
and three large looking glasses. William seems
newly accessible collection of antiques and to
use the gallery to enhance their effective in-
to have been a conscientious executor and
terpretation of the eighteenth century in
Williamsburg.
advertised repeatedly in an attempt to close all
outstanding accounts on his father's estate.
Left an orphan in early childhood, Hum-
phrey Harwood learned a trade that enabled
him as an adult to provide himself and his
family with many of the amenities of life.
Besides being a man concerned about his family, he appears to have felt a sense of responsi-
bility to his community and was involved with
building services for troops stationed in the
many aspects of civic life. While the assumptions presented here will probably never be
area during the Revolutionary period.
more than conjectures, Harwood' s ledger will
Harwood, continued
At home Harwood was concerned with pro-
continue to be an extremely valuable docu-
viding for his children' s education as they
ment that offers otherwise impossible insights
grew older. In retum for his professional
into the daily life of a Williamsburg craftsman
services, he obtained educational benefits,
both academic and cultural, for his sons and
daughters. William studied with Mr. Bracken
at the Grammar School of the College of Wil-
two hundred years ago
liam and Mary; Humphrey took violin lessons
from Mr. Basserear, who also instructed Betsy
on the spinet; and both William and Hum-
phrey studied dancing with Mrs. Sarah Hal
An occasional supplement to The Interpreter newsletter,
Fresh Advices is the coordinated effort of Colonial W il-
lam. Nevertheless, as was typical of the day,
the boys— especially William —received more
liamsburg' s research departments.
Editor: Lou Powgts
education that their sisters.
Editorial Board.•
rB3rbbnn Beaman, John Catamia,
The life of the Harwood family seems to
George Collins, Liza Gusler „Dennis O' Toole,
Jane Strauss, and Bill Tramposch.\
have proceeded uneventfully throughout the
1780s as far as Ledger B tells. The York
L1)
iv
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, July, 1985
Description
An account of the resource
Interpreters and the Decorative Arts Gallery -- Humphrey Harwood, Williamsburg Builder
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/3dc8d294d7e9ae723136b1e677748283.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=nIDfXerulhlV%7EgPgn4F0LNoOec83mrqqHtHgjjdq85qQdPtPjW8dlTIqBLQB3KCAhfYNJ9M3wbItfc812Y7w7KfUbqBPtwy7pCQRnaQDIhQquFJhnNN52l4bBOxcHtXQ9hVQ0xJk-rLDOaZ0jRR9bXG2TajdMQc3M6wWKCqCf6o0LRU5Xi6YgILX%7EXVojRCRSzlFz3SHTvsVvxssAVL7doDKzVp2YggvXCBbZJIVFIAl5XugCa6VygHph6x3AKxVEM0fFyI5f1eso6TzJjJSyZborJa%7EiSZmVYe47IB-QVH23bwiArPxNO%7EeVR7PPUwZkU8Idlj6Jgk%7EJtOp0TUZ1Q__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
daf98d299b0e99acb169ee63987df82f
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Advices
NOVEMBER 1984
Looking at Buildings
by Edward Chappell, director of architectural
research
An underlying assumption of all outdoor
history museums is that it is possible to gain a
special understanding of the past through
material culture. Otherwise, the lessons we
teach at Colonial Williamsburg might be addressed more easily in comfortable lecture
halls and libraries. It is less obvious exactly
how to deal with specific artifacts as sources of
historical information. Queen Anne chairs and
century buildings in Virginia, like Bacon' s
Castle." Such a system for appreciating the
special visual qualities of artifacts has been
considered worthwhile because it allows the
viewer to say more than that he or she likes or
dislikes an artifact. It provides a basis on
which to form defensible aesthetic decisions.
The fact that connoisseurship is essentially
a means of judging or appreciating the value of
artifacts is also its principal problem. When
people rather than artifacts are analyzed, the
Greek Revival houses do not speak to us di-
aesthetic judgments are often simply transfened to the makers or owners, providing means
rectly, so how should we approach the infor-
of evaluating their aesthetic or constructional
mation they have to offer? Architectural his-
capabilities. A craftsman who creates chairs
torians, curators, and archaeologists all have
that consistently adhere to the canons of Chip-
their favorite means of inquiry, and we should
feel free to choose from among the different
pendale' s Director is recognized as bright,
techniques.--Yet intelligent analysis requires
us to recognize the biases and limitations as
well as the benefits of each system. I will
knowledgeable, and probably urban, while
one whose products incorporate a few Chippendale motifs without embracing the full
range of his aesthetic is thought to be un-
review two accepted methods and offer a third
schooled and rural. At best, the second fellow
alternative that draws concepts from each.
is seen as an imaginative copyist with an intri-
mon system for studying objects has been an
guing local style. Regionalism can of course
attract its own connoisseurship, with attention
approach generally known as connoisseurship.
focused on the best examples of the local style
Connoisseurship involves, first, recognition of
or alternately on questions of which region
an object' s style ( rut. co plasterwork, Pre u
produced the most admirable products. In
Raphaelite painting, or postmodem table -
either view, chauvinism can be a chief result.
wares) and, secondly, assessment of how well
Architectural
the object was designed and executed within
that mode. A critic might analyze how suc-
much
Since the nineteenth century the most com-
cessfully a thirteenth - entury designer incorc
porated a round window into the essentially
rectangular composition of a Gothic cathedral
facade, or how naturalistically a sixteenthcentury painter handled the drapery in a
energy
historians have expended as
as
curators
pursuing
this
approach to material culture. The westem
progress of Palladianism from Vicenza to
Richmond County has received its full share
of textbook pages, leaving us with a few
mildly convincing examples and a not very
useful view of society.
portrait. William Pierson uses this analytical
Almost by definition, anthropologists, folk-
method on a familiar architectural subject
when he writes, ` The whole effect of the
lorists, and historians of vernacular architec-
Wren Building is sharp, brittle, and angular.
ture find themselves allied against the " good better best" perspective inherent in connois-
Although it is symmetrical and has a cupola
seurship. Generally, these people see their
and classical details, it still echoes the provin-
purpose as the discovery of social or cultural
cial
systems that are expressed in activities ( like
medievalism
of
earlier
seventcenth-
�cockfighting) or in artifacts (like houses). As a
result, there is considerably more concem for
why things are done a certain way than there is
Specifically, building hierarchies reflect
people' s differing abilities and desires to expend capital on architectura! space and its
for clarification of what constitutes a success-
elaboration. While variation is perhaps more
ful product. A prominent instance of direct
obviously related to financial resources —
relevance to Williamsburg is The Transforma-
compare
tion of Virginia, in which historian Rhys Isaac
House —there is also tremendous variation
analyzes the imagery of eighteenth- century
possible within the product of a single capital
houses and public buildings as part of a system
expenditure.
by which the Chesapeake gentry established
Carter' s
Grove
to
the
Timson
At the most elemental level, hierarchies in
and reinforced its social and political power.
buildings, like those in smaller artifacts, are
While he finds matters of form and scale to be
of importance, Isaac has little use for such
reflections of a viewer' s visual range. The
issues as, say, how successfully John Tayloe
rately embellished than its back. The front of
adapted English Palladian ideals at Mt. Airy.
a drawer chest is sometimes carefully finished,
front of a delft plate is usually more elabo-
In this regard Isaac draws on recent studies
while the sides have exposed joints and in-
of seventeenth- and eighteenth century ver-
ferior wood. On a larger scale, conspicuous
nacular buildings, which have focused on
consumption of wood framing is often con-
shifts in structural techniques and building
fined to the fronts of sixteenth- and seven-
forms almost to the exclusion of decoration.
Most prominent among these is a complex and
teenth -century English houses, while the
sides and rears are framed in a purely struc-
somewhat unresolved book called Folk Hous-
tural rather than a decorative manner.
ing in Middle Virginia. In it folklorist Henry
Hierarchies such as these are more informa-
essential
tive when they reveal whose line of sight is
changes in the community based on the apparent rise in concem for privacy and visual
involved. The Northampton County Jail at
order ( see Ftrsh Advices, November 1981).
about 1800, the small one -room jail was sur-
Glassie further argues — perhaps rhetorically —
rounded on two sides by a brick exercise yard
wall that was integral to the building. The two
Glassie
poses
questions
about
Eastville is an interesting example. Built
that architectural decoration merely diverts
attention from the crucial issue of form.
The latter point is an important one to con-
walls originally visible to the public and outer
sider. Analysis of the form of a building is
structed of selected brick laid in a very careful
and expensive) Flemish bond with precise
surfaces
clearly more useful than sheer recognition and
description of its style. Yet levels of finish
of
the
yard
enclosure
were
con-
mortar joints. For the two walls set within the
exercise yard and the inner face of the yard
represent more than the simple choice of a
walls, a generally poor grade of brick was laid
in a sloppy variable course American bond
decorative mode, and both form and finish
represent a potentially complex group of deci-
with thick and uneven joints. The supervisors
and builders of the Northampton Jail made an
unmistakable distinction between different
lines of sight: the exterior image of a pub -
sions with some sort of psychological, social,
or cultural basis. As a result, attention to the
connections between form and finish can be
instructive.
Using various sytems of visual analysis can
lically financed building was important, but
help to establish for any artifact type the range
the visual qualities of the prisoners' realm was
of possible forms and details. The point is not
not worth the added expense.
to record every existing variation, but to rec-
A slightly more subtle indication of whose
ognize the range of possibilities. The next,
view was considered important is illustrated
more important, step is to determine why a
particular set of choices was made. For eight-
eenth -century Virginia fumiture, for exam -
by a slave quarter at Tuckahoe in Goochland
County. There, six buildings are grouped
along a secondary axis 140 feet from the main
pie, a small group of ceremonial govemment
and Masonic chairs establishes an outpost of
backs to the eighteenth -century house and
house. Two duplex slave houses rum their
face a similar pair of buildings on the opposite
decorative possibility and raises the question
of why some chairs are more enriched than
side of the farm road. Significantly, the
windows facing the main house were finished
others. Form, finish, and scale all constitute a
hierarchial range from which people with a
with relatively elaborate classical architraves
variety of intentions and means may choose.
while the doors facing the slaves' rather than
the master's yard were left plain.
But what is the basis of their choices?
ii
�More commonly, the social meaning of
rooms within houses is expressed by variation
of detail. Hierarchial distinctions are almost
always made between floors and among rooms
on each floor. In general, the level of expense
decreases as one moves from the most to the
least public spaces. Thus, the first floors of
hall- chamber and single -room houses often
have plastered walls and exposed beaded or
chamfered joists, while sleeping rooms in the
all rooms on the second floor have simple
molded chair rails and no paneling.
The degree of social prominence intended
for circulation spaces was clearly expressed in
their finish. As Mark R. Wenger has pointed
out, the lavish enrichment of the Carter' s
Grove entrance hall emphasizes the fact that
this was the principal public room in addition
to being a means of circulation. By contrast,
the stair passages at Blandfield in Essex
floor, halls are usually treated as superior to
County were narrow spaces flanking two central saloons. Although they originally provided
chambers, and passages are sometimes superior
the only access to other first- and second -floor
to halls. A simple illustration can be found at
rooms, the Blandfield passages were signifi-
attic remain entirely unfinished. On the first
the Orrell House on Francis Street. From the
passage through the hall to the back room, the
trim changes from a 71/ chair board embel2"
lished with a molded rail to a plain 71" chair
board to a plain 6" chair board. Chair boards
are entirely omitted on the second floor.
cantly plainer than the rooms themselves.
Their comices and baseboards were smaller,
and the stairways seem to have been finished
with wood of no great quality. The second
floor passage was especially spartan: in order
to reach six well finished second -floor bed-
Throughout the first floor, all door frames are
stock pieces with one superior and one inferior
rooms, the Beverleys and their guests passed
face. The superior face ( with two rather than
wainscoting, and an original attic stair so crude
one cyma) is turned to the outside on both of
that it is often assumed to be a later addition.
Beyond the first floor passages at Blandfield
the exterior entrances and toward the passage
on the interior doorways. The frame between
the hall and the rear room naturally faces the
hall. The result is an otherwise confusing patl
tern with some superior and some inferior
faces visible in both the passage and hall.
through a long space with skimpy cornices, no
are lobbies and hyphens leading to workrooms
and secondary domestic quarters housed in a
pair of dependencies. Clearly envisioned as a
realm of service activity, these spaces were
Because of their scale and multiplicity of
left entirely unfinished: brick walls and roof
framing were exposed and trim was omitted.
social signals; the largest Chesapeake gentry
Often individual variations in detail are so
houses display particularly elaborate internal
subtle as to be barely perceptible. At Shirley
decorative hierarchies. The sequences from
the profile of the panel moldings is used to
public to private space, however, are often the
same as in simpler houses. While the whole
establish the superiority of the river side of the
house. The presence of the stair hall on the
house might be expensively built, it was in the
land side and the degree of attention expended
public rooms that a gentry owner demon-
on the stair raise a question of orientation, but
strated his command of capital and his culti-
the details of the doors and paneling of the two
principal rooms clarify John Carter' s inten-
vated taste. At Carter' s Grove, for example,
the three first floor rooms along the river front
have full height paneling enriched with
pilasters,
entablatures,
and
pedestal
chair
tions. The river side room and both faces of its
exterior door have panels, like those designed
for the exterior of the Public Hospital, with
rails. Within this suite, the entrance hall is
treated as superior. All its openings have sur-
bevels enriched by multiple moldings. Con-
rounds, while only the fireplaces in the flanking rooms have classical frames. Its order is
beads appear in the stair hall and its exterior
more complex ( Ionic,
not Doric),
and its
pilasters are deeper ( three flutes instead of
one). By contrast, the rear passage has paneling, entablatures, and pedestal chair rails, but
pilasters are omitted. Full height paneling is
versely, panels with ordinary quarter round
door, implying that the hall was thought of as
less socially important than the river side
room. Carter was financially able to finish all
his rooms with the best grade of paneling, but
he and his builders made certain choices that
reinforced his ideas of how the house would
also found in the less public land side rooms,
function. The level of attention was such that
but there paneled overmantels and molded
would
chair rails suffice. Extension of the public
the doors between the two principal rooms are
finished so that the land face has single beads
space into the upper middle room is implied
by the classical treatment of its entrance, but
make
a
modern
contractor
shudder:
and the river face has multiple moldings, each
�of many colors in favor of a more realistic
reflecting its orientation.
Hierarchies of construction techniques are
whitewash, and soon Wetherbum' s stable will
particularly evident in Chesapeake farm and
be painted in a manner that is less rather than
town
more costly than the tavern itself. While
avoiding a rigid formula, we have begun to
complexes.
In
groups
such
as
the
Roberts and Pruden farms in Isle of Wight,
the houses are well built of brick or frame,
make changes intended to illustrate social and
often with prefabricated glazed windows and
functional variations within as well as among
modillion comices. Surviving contemporary
kitchens and smokehouses are also usually
substantially crafted, usually of frame with
Williamsburg lots. One result is that a walk
through a lot fronting on Duke of Gloucester
wood sills on low brick foundations. However,
Nicholson Street east of Market Square, better reveals some of the diversity that existed
Street, or a walk from the main street to
the kitchens and, obviously, the smokehouses
are seldom plastered, they never have modil-
when properties were privately maintained.
lion comices, and most often their eaves are
Several recent studies have begun to show
partially unfinished and the underside of the
joists are exposed on the exterior. Occasion-
how architectural finish was manipulated in
order to fulfill personal and civic agendas in
ally, a stable or other building will represent a
eighteenth century public buildings. Dell
somewhat lower level of construction with un-
Upton has argued that, increasingly in the
later colonial period, wealthy Virginians ex-
hewn or partially hewn posts that ignore sills
and extend directly into the ground. Granaries
are usually similar in finish to kitchens and
smokehouses, but corncribs are generally in-
pended their own funds to create superior
private zones inside parish churches. New
family pews raised above the level of the gen-
ferior. An occasional framed crib survives, but
eral congregation effected selective social sep-
most are built of unhewn logs, roughly saddle notched and held together with a few heavy
joists. Descriptions of slave housing, tobacco
aration and forced the minister to share atten-
bams,
tion with the local gentry.
Current research and field work by Carl
Lounsbury and Douglas Taylor have also de-
and other buildings associated with
work and workers make it even clearer that a
fined
very broad range of quality existed, and that
choices within the range were made largely in
system used to establish civic and social order
response
ginia and elsewhere the focus of the court-
to
perceived
categories
of
parts of the elaborate architectural
in English and American courtrooms. In Vir-
social
Importance- im
room was on an ascending order from rear to
In the past year recognition of these categories has led to the modification of paint
schemes for some Historic Area lots. Increas-
of the courtoom, one would pass through a
front and from low to high. Entering the rear
loggia or under a portico into a relatively un-
ingly, paddocks, stables, and work buildings
are being painted with colors that were less
structured space where spectators sat on back-
expensive than those used for houses and
a stone- or brick paved floor. The spectators'
stores. The Geddy Foundry has shed its coat
area was small and closed off by a railing,
less benches or, probably more often, stood on
PARLOR
I
I IN
0
1/ 2
1
2
3
Cil
STAIR HALL
5
INCHES
Section through first - loor door, Shirley, Charles City County. Variation in the molding profiles
f
reflects the superior status of the parlor. Drawing: J. J. Bernard.
iv
�18
1
22026
Courthouse plan from 1781 - 1791 Amelia County deed book. Copied by D. R. Taylor.
Eighteenth -century
privy
at
Westover,
Charles City County. The seats to the south
are set inside a plastered masonry apse that
rises three feet above the floor. Drawing: J. J.
Bemard and D. R. Taylor.
0
1
FEET
v
2
3
4
5
�beyond which the lawyers and litigants sat. A
system of contemporary Virginia courtooms.
second railing separated this intermediate
Perhaps we should avoid a too elaborate in-
zone from the jurors and clerk, who sat facing
terpretation of the lofty conceits of the
the litigants. Above the jurors, seated on
Chesapeake' s richest gentry. Yet the example
cushions at the head of the room, was a group
helps us to see that architectural elements
of from four to two dozen justices. Surpris-
were
ingly often, the justices' bench seems to have
been arranged in a arc or semicircle reminis-
domestic relationships as well as public functions. One of the William Byrds was especially
cent of the seating formation used by the
imaginative in his pursuit of private order.
used
to
reinforce
the
structure
of
speaker of the House or the governor in the
Lofty or otherwise, social and economic
General Court at the Williamsburg Capitol.
hierarchies sharply informed the finish and
size of eighteenth century buildings. Drawing inspiration from both the stylistic observa-
The center of this dramatic arrangement was
the chief magistrate,
seated on a more ele-
vated bench or arm chair, often with a triangu-
lar pediment or canopy signaling his superior
station. As an invocation of royal authority,
royal arms hung above the chief magistrate.
Finally, access to the justices' bench and jury
was guarded by sheriff' s and cryer' s boxes.
The image of the magistrate passing judg-
tions of connoisseurship and anthropology' s
analytical approach to form, we can begin to
understand that there is important cultural
information to be teamed by paying attention
to the relationship between shape and embellishment. We can see what choices were
made, where value was placed, how people of
ment from the apse was a powerful one, both
for those who pleaded their cases before the
court and for the justices themselves.
different ranks occupied and moved through
At Westover, the later William Byrds
created a domestic architectural setting with
more than latent references to judicial
cessors ordered their world.
strength.
Somewhat
like
the
their spaces. Ultimately, we can get a better
notion of how our eighteenth -century prede-
formidable
courtyard arrangement at Shirley, the main
house was framed by a series of smaller sub-
Recommended Reading
sidiary buildings, in this case extending in
John Fowler and John Comforth. English Decoration in the 18th Century. Princeton, 1974.
Mark Girouard. Life in the English Country
House: A Social and Architectural History.
lines to each side. The principal elevation
faced the James River, but formal approach
seems to have been from the land side,
through an elaborate screen with an iron gate-
New Haven, 1978.
way decorated with birds and the initials W B.
Henry Glassie. Folk Housing in Middy Vir-
When Thomas Lee Shippen visited Westover
in 1783, rows of trees extended in arcs toward
the river and the ends of the screen, placing
the house at the center, as it were, of two
natural apses. Where the ends of the land side
apse met the screen were two elevated brick
buildings, both of which survive. Of these,
ginia: A
Structural Analysis
of Historic
Artifacts. Knoxville, 1975.
Wallace B. Gusler. Furniture of Williamsburg
and Eastern Virginia, 1710 -1790. Richmond,
1979.
Rhys Isaac. The Transformation of Virginia,
1740 - 1790. Chapel Hill, 1982.
the east building is the more interesting for
William H. Pierson. American Buildings and
our purposes. It is a privy with a most remarkable interior arrangement. Entering the privy
from a dramatically high set of steps, one passes
between two rows of seats. Those to the left
their Architects. Vol.
1:
The Colonial and
Neoclassical Styles. Garden City, N.Y., 1976.
Roger F. Trent. Hearts and Crowns: Folk
Chain of the Connecticut Coast, 1720 - 1840.
flank a fireplace, and they are small and low,
presumably for children. On the opposite wall
New Haven, 1977.
a brick apse has been constructed inside the
square walls, forming the backdrop for a
semicircular seat that faces the fireplace. The
An occasional supplement to The Interpreter newsletter,
Fresh Advice[ is the coordinated effort of Colonial Wil-
seat is pierced by three holes —those at the
Editor: Lou Powers
liamsburg's research departments.
sides are of medium size and that at the center
Editorial Board: Barbara Beaman, John Catamia,
George Collins, Liza Gusler, Dennis O' Toole,
is slightly larger.
This
Jane Strauss, and Bill Tramposch.
extraordinary seating arrangement
parallels in a most private realm the hierarchial
vi
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, November, 1984
Description
An account of the resource
Looking at Buildings
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/429dcc89b346842866673bafe897d96c.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=jrfhyK-74mI%7ECGfnL%7EGrYKQ3vfAwO-weFMKwXKK9WRdgnS0P83Ix00VCNha3lXeVTF1chGZvE1PwNzW6tXZRjCazarPrtzV4OcvpXuXUFYRDvEZ32-wiAQmYN6ZNvvLj-qPTHLII1ZyaEa3jRo4dlz6GNpHsgsJillZe%7EsRYmoboGggzBR84X5EAECXWdK-bMRXHkMOBDtuazTGGZSjBw8fg5oYES5Bjs%7E7EzBhJ49u-w%7ELqbxhHl0gsEkPXUPLxG7nv0TuDSd%7ECoeuq1ukPntQclZ4djFqIVNloX4G9zzZS4O9F6u3DiTpnuUkprQyuDU3sjDxaUihCWm9OjLYBBQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
f7370622110692a3ff94949a1fcf81b5
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Advices
9
NOVEMBER 1983
Beyond the Pale:
artifacts and buildings have come to us from a
Architectural Fieldwork
variety of sources: other fieldworkers, local
historians, Colonial Williamsburg and Virginia
for Colonial Williamsburg
by Edward Chappell, director of architectural
research
Historic
Landmarks
Commission
archives,
and preliminary fieldwork such as the inten-
sive survey of Isle of Wight County farms
Camille Wells conducted in 1981. There has
seldom been a lack of material to study.
tell members of the Crafts Department about
Rather, a chief concem has been to make well
reasoned decisions about which subjects can
the survival of a tobacco press said to have
reveal information most critical to understand-
been used to pack hogsheads at a Nelson
ing and interpreting the eighteenth- century
County farm. The apparatus, according to the
story, was very large, very ancient, and in
Chesapeake.
imminent danger. Alterations were planned
of research at Colonial Williamsburg. In the
continued, p. ii)
One fall day, a Williamsburg visitor stopped to
for the barn, and the press was to be de-
Architectural fieldwork is not a new method
molished within a week! While the description was predictably vague, the machinery
sounded tantalizingly similar to the presses
also known as prizes) pictured in eighteenth-
Why Curators Do Fieldwork
century engravings. Unquestionably, it ap-
by Sumpter T. Priddy III, museum consultant
peared to be a very long shot: a rare vertical
tobacco press surviving in an unlikely location
andfotmer teaching curator
on Wintergreen Mountain 150 miles from Wil-
What exactly is fieldwork as it applies to a
liamsburg. Similar stories had sometimes
yielded Tess than exciting results.
With time running out and no reliable
curator? The most obvious answer is that it
means going into the field —away from one' s
routine work place —to do research. It means
means of verification from a distance, we de-
going out to the homes of collectors or of
cided to ignore the questionable odds and
people who have been fortunate enough or
mount an expedition. Early one morning a
far -sighted enough to save things that be-
pessimistic
archi-
longed to their ancestors. It might mean going
tectural historians headed west toward the
Blue Ridge.
to other museums hoping to find objects or
facts that relate to things in one' s own collec-
group
of craftsmen
and
Three and a half hours later, we discovered
tion. But it can also mean venturing into the
that the tip had been a good one, that here
indeed was the only farm press of its kind
marketplace —going to antique shops or pre-
known to survive in Virginia. Well into the
another piece that sheds light on the past.
viewing auctions in the hope of finding
Architectural historians go into the field be-
evening the group happily drew, measured,
and photographed every detail of the press
cause they don' t have any alternative if they
and its contemporary bam. As a result, we
want to seek out primary evidence. The same
have
traditional agricultural processing —a perma-
need is apparent for an Egyptologist who
teaches in Kalamazoo. But how about curators
who sit in the midst of a museum filled with
nent record that may eventually be of use to
the Foundation in teaching about tobacco
the things they curate? Do they necessarily
have to, since many of their objects reside in
culture. Furthermore, the attention the press
museums or in museum storage, and in most
received has assured its preservation.
instances can be studied without stirring
a substantial
amount of information
about the form and workings of one aspect of
j
Useful leads about hundreds of comparable
continued, p. iii)
�Architects, continued,
late 1920s and ' 30s Perry, Shaw and Hepbum
architects searched the Chesapeake country-
ing, shuttered windows, and clapboard roofs
will be as closely based on regional prototypes
side for details that could be used to flesh out
as are the subtle details of eighteenth century
skeletal designs based on documents and ar-
brickwork that we hope to re- create at the
Public Hospital.
chaeology. The notebooks of distinguished
designers like Susan Higginson Nash and
Good fieldwork must do more than care-
Singleton Peabody Moorehead are filled with
fully record details that might someday be
photographs and precisely drawn sketches of
incorporated into a restoration or reconstruc-
mantel architraves, window muntins, and in-
c
tion. One value of reconstructions, if approached intelligently, is that they encourage
numerable other eighteenth- and nineteenth-
century building components. It is, in fact,
largely due to the careful attention and recording by people like Nash and Moorehead that
the Historic Area is as well crafted and satisfying upon close examination as it is in overall
the
researcher
to
ask
significant
questions
about the implications of original buildings.
Much of the literature that resulted from ar-
chitectural recording of American and European buildings in the era of Colonial Williams -
in tidewater Virginia. Today, buildings as di-
burg' s inception is related to connoisseurship,
to the discovery and appreciation of the fine
design qualities in traditional craftsmanship.
Although there was unquestionably much
careful craftsmanship in eighteenth-century
Virginia, not all buildings —probably not even
most buildings —received the costly attention
verse as the new Public Hospital and the small
that was expended on the majority of original
shed for papermaking behind the Printing Office owe details to early buildings both inside
and outside Williamsburg. At Greenhow Store
houses and stores lining Duke of Gloucester
Street. In a museum village, authenticity de-
the form of the shelves as well as the general
known to have existed in another era. Of
equal significance, though, is the need to use
impression.
This tradition has continued. In the 1960s,
for example, Foundation architects created a
very believable domestic work complex at
Wetherbum' s Tavern by drawing on information about dairies, smokehouses, and kitchens
design are based largely on fragmentary remains of about fourteen early stores in eastern
mands
the
careful
reproduction
of
things
these components in a proper context, for
realism is only approached when we under-
Virginia.
As much as any other building in Williams-
stand what was and wasn' t used in a particular
burg,— James Anderson Forge will illustrate
the -
situation. While plastered walls and modillion
lessons leamed from fieldwork. At the Ander-
comices may be appropriate for a large house,
their appearance on a laundry or lumber house
should be regarded as highly suspect.
Recently, research has increasingly pursued a full range of building possibilities, extending from the finest gentry houses to the
outbuildings of the poorest surviving farms.
This refocusing reflects not merely a democratization of perspective, but rather a growing
son site, archaeology defined the plan, placement of forges, and sequence of development
and
provided
important evidence for the
character of the building (solid but relatively
sloppy brick foundations, dirt floors, and an
interior devoid of plaster finish). Neither illustrations nor descriptive documentation ex-
ists for the building, so the implications provided by archaeology have to be interpreted in
light of what we know about the range of
quality employed in late eighteenth- and early
nineteenth -century work buildings. Both
primary fieldwork carried out by Dell Upton
and more recent recording by the Agricultural
Buildings Project have been directed toward
establishing a system of construction and
finish that is consistent with the archaeologi-
interest in the connections between buildings
and social systems. At one level, researchers
can use the variety of building techniques to
pose questions about the separation of activi-
ties into different areas of a house, town lot, or
farm complex. At another level, groups of
buildings can be linked to individuals whose
social position in the community is known
from documents. In either case, interest and
cal evidence and the functional implications
complexity are created by the fact that condi-
of an industrial site. By portraying the impact
tions vary substantially in different times and
of function and economic circumstances, con-
places.
struction of the Anderson forge will introduce
In order to address problems of interpreta-
building methods not recently familiar in the
tion, the Agricultural Buildings Project pri-
Historic Area. Nevertheless, its riven fram-
continued, p. iii) _
�marily focuses on building complexes rather
for interpreting the past. But curators have
than individual structures. One result is that
we can study the differing importance expressed, for example, in the exterior and interior
finish of dwellings, domestic work buildings,
other responsibilities. They collect objects,
research and write about them, all the time
increasing public awareness and appreciation
for them.
agricultural buildings, and slave houses. By
Most people are aware how significantly
establishing the relative degree of craftsman-
museums, particularly history museums, have
ship invested in each, the historian begins to
changed over the last decade. Museums have
understand past perceptions of social order, as
well as something of the variety of eighteenth-
shifted their focus from major events,
important individuals, and masterpieces
century living conditions. This is precisely the
kind of variety that will be richly expressed at
toward a greater emphasis on social history
and the ways that everyday objects help de-
both the Anderson site and the Public Hospital. For the hospital, details of a reconstructed
patient's cell have been developed to illus-
trate
eighteenth century
attitudes
fine people' s lives. Increasingly, as the questions we ask of history have changed, so has
the role of the curator.
toward
Curators are aware how an object helps to
people considered mentally ill. These attitudes result in an approach to building that is
define the life of its user or maker, but they
different from that expressed by the public
Each thing created exists in a context. Other
very different objects coexist with it, are used
with it, and help to complete a picture of the
image of the exterior or in a cell —also planned
for the hospital —reflecting a radically different mid -nineteenth -century approach to insanity. At the Anderson site, industrial work
also realize that no object exists in isolation.
material world that surrounds its user or owner
conditions will contrast sharply with the rela-
or maker at a given time. But there is another
type of context as well. This is the context of
tively affluent domestic conditions implied by
an object in relation to others of the same kind
the expensively finished house. The character of the kitchen, whose position and relative
that were made either before or after it. Plac-
quality are known from archaeology, will fall
subtle features that characterize each particular one at a given point becomes, in essence,
midway between the two.
Like other approaches to social history,
ing objects in a progression and tracing the
an opportunity to trace the situation or the
fieldwork can provide us with fresh insights
changing situation
into some of the realities of past life. Our
with it.
general_ need. is to understand, in specific
terms, the relationships between artifacts and
One of the most exciting discoveries for any
curator is finding an object still in its original
society. The ultimate discovery, then, is not
context. Context —this is such an important
the last of a threatened species of tobacco
word. It is something the archaeologist and
architectural historian take largely for granted.
A house usually remains standing where it was
built; a broken artifact is usually found where
it was discarded. But being able to place an
machinery or impermanent building but an
understanding of how these and othercomponents are part of a dynamic social system.
Lessons learned in the field can animate our
interpretation of the Historic Area and enable
us to teach a more useful form of history.
of the people associated
object in context is one of the most important
needs of the curator. It is also one of the most
difficult since most household objects move as
Curators, tvntinued
beyond the confines of their daily work place?
Why would a curator want to do fieldwork? Or,
more importantly, why does a curator need to?
To begin, let' s define curators. The Oxford
their successive owners move. Retracing the
steps is usually impossible. When it is possible
through documentary evidence, family
history, or photographic or other visual verification), it gives completely new meaning to
the object. For curators, knowing what type of
house an artifact was in or what other objects
or
coexisted with it helps them to extrapolate
those who have charge " of a
person or thing." This reinforces the common
something about the people who used such
things and how the material world helped to
perception of curators as guardians. They see
define their lives.
English Dictionary calls them " keepers"
custodians,"
to it that objects are preserved, unaltered
Consider two examples: in the
first, a
when possible, so that future scholars can con-
J
curator is given a portrait of a colonial Vir-
tinue to use those objects as primary evidence
continued, p. iv)
�what is most representative. Making such a
choice is difficult unless those who must de-
cide have been exposed to a broad range of
Curators, continued
ginian by a descendant of the subject. Unfortunately, the descendant isn' t sure who
objects, and fieldwork helps give curators the
exposure that lets them determine what is
painted the portrait or which of four great -
rarest, most accomplished, or most represen-
grandfathers it really is. The curator immedi-
tative.
ately recognizes the painting as an early Wol-
Despite the vast corpus of objects made by
a people at any given time, few objects survive
for posterity. Of those that do survive, only a
laston because of its similarity to another
portrait in a private collection. He then enlists
the aid of a genealogist to help trace specific
few remain in their original context. Far more
information on the donor' s ancestors. After
some work the genealogist discovers that two
often than not the objects have been changed
from their original appearance, made more
of the possible candidates were poor planters
elegant, stripped of paints that offend modem
who owned less than a hundred acres each and
sensibilities, altered in some way to fit how
couldn' t have afforded a portrait by one of the
people want to perceive the past rather than
colony' s leading painters. Of the other two
the way it was. As things go, few of these
candidates, only one was still young enough
during Wollaston' s travels in Virginia to qualify as the subject. A subsequent check in
county records tums up a full inventory of his
goods serve an important role in a museum
exhibition. Nonetheless, many are important
from a documentary standpoint. They help
fill in the gaps, help to provide a broad view of
home with specific reference to portraits that
the alternatives originally available in the
hung in the passage there.
past, help to complete a picture of the full
In the second example,. a curator discovers
progression of a certain type of object. These
an early Virginia table in a New York antique
objects generally are not in museum collec-
shop, but the dealer is unable to provide him
with any background information on the
for a curator who knows how to interpret the
tions ( and generally they should not be). But
piece. The table is rather uninspired in appearance and has a replaced leg, which de-
subtle distinctions between objects and how
stroys its value as a museum piece. The
promised object can be important.
to
look
through
alterations,
even
a
com-
drawer construction is atypical of Virginia
It's no secret that curators sometimes go
work, so the curator makes copious notes for
his files. Several years later a superb dbsk and
into the field hoping to find rare and valuable
bookcase with glazed doors and classical pedi-
files, finds that the two pieces are identical on
are far more realistic. They don' t spend their
lives riding through the countryside knocking
on doors, hopping from museum to museum,
or going to uptown auctions. They usually go
the interior, and ascribes them to the same
only when definite leads suggest a trip is
shop, which prior research had indicated was
in Williamsburg. It appears that the shop in
question not only made high style showpieces
worth the investment of time and energy. But
objects to add to their collections. But most
ment appears on the market. Again the construction is atypical. The curator checks his
good curators always seek those leads, maintaining close contacts with other curators and
collectors, with antique dealers and auction
for the parlors of the gentry but more utilitarian pieces for small planters as well. More
importantly, the desk and bookcase has
stylistic features that relate to a Williamsburg
chest of drawers made some fifty years before,
emphasizing the continuity of the Williamsburg cabinet trade in the eighteenth century
and reinforcing its similarity to London.
houses. More often than not, the things they
find are not exceptional or one of a kind or
beautiful, but have been altered, changed,
made less than they were, distorted. Even the
remnants help to place other objects in context and, in doing so, help the curator fit
another piece —albeit a small one —into the
unfinished puzzle of the past.
It is impossible for museums to attempt to
preserve every morsel of the past. In the first
place, keeping things and maintaining them is
a very expensive proposition. But not everything is worthy of preservation. One must be
selective,
discriminating: sometimes
An occasional supplement to The Interpreter newsletter,
Fresh Advises is the coordinated effort of Colonial Wil-
liamsburg' s research departments.
Editor: Lou Powers
Assistant Editors: Arthur Bames and Harold Gill
this
Editorial Board:: Barbara Beaman, John Caramia,
means choosing what is rarest, sometimes
George Collins, Liza Gusler, Dennis O' Toole,
what is most accomplished, sometimes what is
most valuable —but increasingly it also means
Jane Strauss, and Bill Tramposch
iv
�The only vertical press of this variety in Virginia
was found in a bam on Wintergreen Mountain in
Nelson County.
Drawing: E. Chappell and W. J. Graham.
0
1
2
3
6
FEET
IIIIIIIII_
1= 11111
11111
0
1
2
3
4
5
I-
10
FEET
Our shed for papermaking derives its unhewn ground -set posts and other unfamiliar construction
features from surviving structures like an early porch on the Barrett smokehouse in Southampton
County.
Drawing: D. R. Taylor
�inumutesmim
upwrwAlos
mosuagimml
0
o
o
0
o:
o
n
obi
Wt_
1010
012345012345
FEETFEET
AA varietyvariety ofof tobaccotobacco barnsbarns contributedcontributed detailsdetails toto thethe experimentalexperimental bambam nownow underunder constructionconstruction atat
Carter'Carter' ss Grove.Grove. TheThe chiefchief sourcesource forfor framingframing detailsdetails andand thethe systemsystem ofof tobaccotobacco hanginghanging isis thethe
Burrage'Burrage' ss EndEnd bambam inin AnneAnne ArundelArundel County,County, Maryland.Maryland.
Drawing:Drawing: W.W. J.J. GrahamGraham andand M.M. S.S. Schara.Schara.
rr••._•
U• m•
Greenhow Greenhow StoreStore illustratesillustrates anan eighteentheighteenth
uunuun
centurycentury divisiondivision ofof publicpublic andand privatprivat
spacesspaces thatthat waswas principallyprincipally teamedteamed frofro cc aa
omom
pp
structuresstructures likelike White'White' ss StoreStore inin IsleIsle cc ff
ww
WightWight County.County. White'White' ss StoreStore alsoalso prcprc
videdvided precedentprecedent forfor shelves shelves atGreenhossatGreenhoss
Drawing:Drawing: C.C.
BergengrenBergengren andand D.D.
RR
TaylorTaylor
0
112
34
J
FEET
5
1
10
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, November, 1983
Description
An account of the resource
Beyond the Pale: Architectural Fieldwork for Colonial Williamsburg -- Why Curators Do Fieldwork
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/a5d94bc6fb0e72eeea2c85ef0aa27c03.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=EZsEKsye7Irqm2dJr-egpvxOY-xa3vEwah5wjAkQY7j90tkEgiInrOsVjiG4dccmLYgltLBWSbkTznK2g9wVCtuNNs-DDdINSNh2fQrLVsCzdQ1-%7EhN1vm9RURNquW4FFbDvjvcCxFcDUyKAnGyg%7EQg1CDu0D-LCHofOQK72FnS8cKbL-VNdQsK7e0tgg3B8Kd9ZMfCoXjBzmVhStAVG48VPJIUHDTn4xs8v8YvmrYHRIDPQCI27G6e3oH-Glv1vHk4EbpKA5QZ%7Ejg4DoO5HYIOmppGIjd1Hh5Q8waaAYtht%7EEqv0ksHsz1Lv69oPvDeT1XP-VBO0TY25p5sy9rJ-g__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
fa8bb964929865bf6c7dfe7d125815a7
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
lFresh
vices
JULY 1983
Core Curriculum in Summary
This issue of Fresh Aldvices consists of summaries of last year's Core Curriculum courses. These
precis were written by the faculty members and emphasize the courses' most important historical
themes for use in the Historic Area.
We have two reasons for printing these precis: as review for interpreters who took these courses
in 1983 and to help interpreters choose the courses that most interest them in 1984.
A short reading list follows each precis and is arranged in order of importance. Most of these are
available through the library of the Department of Interpretive Education; others are in the
Research Center.
Basic Courses
Virginia Society in Profile
Kevin Kelly began the course with a brief definition of terms, pointing out that a society is a
group of people living together with a shared cultural awareness and that it is characterized by a
recognizable organization or structure. He also talked about the many elements— wealth, family,
occupation, and so forth —that peg one' s position in society, adding that historians have been
especially interested in how people improve their position. The first lecture ended with a
snapshot" ofYork County society at mid eighteenth century as revealed in a typical court session;
for example, the court displayed a political hierarchy, there was a wide range in wealth holding,
most of the court cases concerned business, and only men were involved.
During the second lecture, Mr. Kelly looked closely at the key seventeenth -century precedents
ofeighteenth -century social order, arguing that before 1680 the high, constant influx ofyoung men
and the high death rate profoundly affected early Chesapeake society. Families were frequently
broken apart, women gained in status, and the social order was highly fluid. This lecture ended
with a discussion of the important demographic changes that occurred between 1680 and 1720 and
their contribution to social order and stability: He noted as examples the decline in the number of
white immigrants and the resulting shift to slaves as the main labor source. Life expectancies
improved, which helped produce both a Virginia -born political leadership and a widening of the
gap between the rich and the poor.
The third lecture pointed out that the key changes begun in the seventeenth century continued
unabated well into the eighteenth century. Blacks were imported in massive numbers even as
whites from the northern colonies filled the backcountry. Life expectancies continued to improve.
White families grew larger, and despite sexual imbalance, blacks founded families and began to
grow naturally by the 1750s. By the 1780s the continued movement toward a rigidly stratified
society produced great differences in wealth, a large number oflandless planters, lack of opportunity, and a retreat in the status of women.
The course ended with a look at the urban element of Virginia society as seen in Williamsburg.
Mr. Kelly noted that 52 percent of the town' s 1775 population was black, that whites were
primarily adult and male, that approximately 40 percent of the household heads were artisans, that
lawyers held over a third of the political offices, and that the truly well - -do residents of
to
Williamsburg were merchants.
The elements of society discussed in this course provide the context in which to place the
objects and spaces interpreted in the Historic Area.
Readings:
Richard Beeman, " Social Change and Cultural Conflict in Virginia: Lunenburg County, 1746 to
i
�1774," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., XXXV (1978), pp. 455- 476.
Aubrey Land, " Economic Behavior in a Planting Society: The Eighteenth Century Chesapeake," Journal ofSouthern History, XXXIII (1967), pp. 469 -485.
Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740 -1790 (Chapel Hill, 1982).
The Growth ofVirginia' s Preindustrial Economy
This course, taught by Peter Bergstrom and John Hemphill, provided an overview of the
economy of colonial Virginia by exploring the twin economic processes of development and
diversification. The lectures introduced the seventeenth -century background and focused on
major economic happenings of the eighteenth century.
The seventeenth century, down to about 1675, was a period of severe demographic crisis with
life expectancies short, the likelihood of marriage and family life small, and economic security all
too fleeting. In spite of the successful introduction of tobacco as an export crop by 1620, a
continuing series of " booms" and " busts" alternately inflated and deflated the economy as the
market for tobacco rose and fell in response to prosperity and depression in Europe. Tim irony of
the seventeenth- century experience was that just as the quality oflife began to improve in the last
quarter of the century, the economic future seemed the darkest, as more and more tobacco flooded
the already saturated English market and prices continued to fall.
Events early in the eighteenth century caused significant changes in Virginia. New tobacco
markets in continental Europe brought new investments to Virginia. Black slavery increased with
new demands for labor that surpassed the availability ofwhite field hands. New lands were opened
in the Piedmont and eventually in the Valley of Virginia.
Against this background of growth, problem areas of the Virginia economy were explored in
greater detail: first, the nature of Virginia's system of credit finance, its origins in a cash -poor
society, and its development into a commercial system based upon extensive credit and coin
substitutes for nearly nonexistent British coinage; second, the recurrent problem of overproduction of trash tobacco, its stagnating effect on the world market, and its ultimate solution with the
inspection system initiated in 1730; third, the alternatives to a tobacco economy in Virginia: crop
diversification, commercial development of other colonial markets, and proto- industrialization.
The course concluded with a consideration of the major economic changes that occurred in
Virginia during the three -quarters of a century preceeding the American Revolution. The most
obvious was the growth of towns. This was followed by the vast increase in exports ofall kinds, but
particularly crops and products other than tobacco. What had been a totally rural, single - rop
c
economy -in -1700 was by 1775 a partly urbanized region with a number of small towns and
commercial centers that aided in the marketing of many crops to places other than Britain. On the
eve of the Revolution Virginia' s economy was increasingly developed and diversified.
Readings:
Shomer Zwelling, " Why Historians Disagree," The Interpnter( November 1980), pp. 1 - 2.
What Did It Cost ?," The Interpreter
1980), p. 1.
Peter Bergstrom, " Lingo of the Colonial Economy," research query file, June 1, 1983.
Fine Things/ Plain Things: Virginia' s Material Culture
Sumpter Priddy' s two main objectives in presenting this course were to show how the households and life - tyles of eastern Virginians changed during the course of the colonial period and to
s
point up differences in life - tyles among Virginia' s social strata.
s
After a general introduction, the lectures took up the theme in more specific terms. The first
discussed major changes in household artifacts at the highest cultural level ( primarily English) in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This discussion showed how people' s changing expectations and interactions were shaped by and reflected in the things they used.
The second lecture focused on Virginia' s material culture as it diverged from Anglo-European
precedents and developed a character that clearly reflected its own society, culture, and economy.
In the final lecture Mr. Priddy described eastern Virginia' s culture on the eve of the American
Revolution and surveyed the lives and possessions of four very different householders: a wealthy
planter, a middle class urban artisan, a " middling" planter, and a slave. The comparison showed
how these four differed in outlook and life - tyle as a result of the objects used daily and how their
s
differences determined their choice of objects.
Readings:
Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740 -1790 ( Chapel Hill, 1982), pp. 30- 46, 68- 87,
118 - 127, 302308.
Lois Green Carr and Lorena S. Walsh, " Inventories and the Analysis of Wealth and Consumption
j.
�Patterns in St. Mary's County, Maryland, 1658- 1777," Historical Methods, XIII, no. 2 ( Spring
1980), pp. 81 - 104.
Cary Carson and Lorena S. Walsh, " The Material Life of the Early American Housewife,"
Conference on Women in Early American, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1981.
Advanced Courses
Afro-American History
This course was divided into three time periods, one for each session, and was team -taught by
three members of the research department.
Lorena Walsh gave the first session on the black experience from 1619 to 1710. In the
seventeenth century forced migration of enslaved Africans accompanied the settlement of plantation colonies throughout the New World. In the Chesapeake, slaves were initially only a small part
of a labor force composed largely of white servants, but from the 1680s slavery quickly became the
predominant labor system. These later arrivals usually came directly from Africa rather than from
the West Indies as had the first slaves. With blacks comprising about a quarter of the region' s
population in 1700, they were somewhat less isolated from members of their own race than in
earlier years, but had to cope with hardening racism and an increasingly repressive legal system.
Africans in the seventeenth - entury Chesapeake started the process of becoming Afroc
Americans by incorporating many elements of European culture such as language, names, and
work routines in order to endure slavery. Residential isolation, high mortality, and an oversupply
of men meant that some blacks were unable to maintain sustaining social contacts with other blacks
and that many were unable to have any sort of family life. While slavery was the fate of most, in the
1660s and ' 70s some blacks gained freedom and established communities of free black families
who tried tenaciously to protect their position while maintaining ties to other blacks.
The second session dealt with the period from 1710 to 1765. In it Reginald Butler emphasized
the slave trade and its impact on Afro American society and culture in the Chesapeake. The arrival
of large numbers of Africans had enormous consequences on the demography and society of the
entire region. Forty five thousand Africans were transported to Virginia between 1700 and 1750
and, combined with natural growth, the population of Afro-Americans increased to 100, 000. Most
of these blacks were concentrated in the tidewater area, living on tobacco plantations in groups of
twenty or less.
Plantation size, the ratio of males to females in slave imports, the average distance between
plantations, as well as the relative proportion of newly arrived Africans to Virginia -bom blacks
called creoles) all had considerable effect on the pattems of kinship, amity, and social and
religious organization. There was some degree of variation in the development and growth of
Afro-Virginian society and culture depending on the specific configuration of these variables over
time. Up until the second quarter of the eighteenth century, the most crucial influence on the
possibilities of the development ofAfro-American culture and society was the slave trade. In turn,
the catalyst for the growing importance of African labor well into the eighteenth century was the
focus on the production of tobacco for the world market.
The change from a reliance on fresh shipments ofAfricans to an almost exclusive employment of
native black labor and the shift to grain farming and agricultural diversification marked the
difference between the first half of the eighteenth century and the second.
The last session, taught by Philip Morgan, concemed the period from 1765 to 1800. He
concentrated on the shifts in agriculture and their impact on the development of Afro-American
communities. This lecture also explored a basic change in the lives of black families during these
years. As the number of slaves increased, it was possible for black men and women to fulfill normal
expectations for marriage and childrearing, and within a generation or two they established
extensive kinship groups. During this period blacks were increasingly able to find work in
non agricultural employment as craftsmen, industrial laborers, seamen, and so forth.
Black Virginians drew upon cultural forms that were created from a fusion —by no means
uniform — African, English, and native American traditions. By the third quarter of the eighof
teenth century, a set of articulated Afro American communities was firmly in place.
Readings for this course are not listed in order of importance. The first two are for Mrs. Walsh' s
session; the third and fourth for Mr. Butler's; and the last three for Mr. Morgan' s.
Allan Kulikoff, `The Origins of Afro-American Society in Tidewater Maryland and Virginia, 1700
to 1790," William andMary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., XXXV (1978), pp. 226 -259.
Russell Menard, " The Maryland Slave Population, 1658 to 1730: A Demographic Profile of
�Blacks in Four Counties," William andMary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., XXXII (1975), pp. 29- 54.
Russell Menard, " From Servants to Slaves: The Transformation of the Chesapeake Labor
System," Southern Studies, XVI (1977), pp. 355 -390.
Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance is Eighteenth- Century Virginia (New York,
1972), pp. 124 - 163.
Robert McColley, Slavery andJeffersonian Virginia (Urbana, Ill., 1964).
Richard S. Dunn, " A Tale of Two Plantations: Slave Life at Mesopotamia in Jamaica and Mount
Airy in Virginia, 1799 to 1828," William andMary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., XXXIV (1977), pp. 32- 65.
Ira Berlin, " Time, Space, and the Evolution ofAfro-American Society on British Mainland North
America, "American Historical Review, LXXXV (1980), pp. 44- 78.
Agricultural History of Colonial Virginia
Eighteenth- century techniques of cultivating tobacco, corn, and wheat were Harold Gill's major
emphasis in this course. He showed that agriculture was generally a profitable occupation despite
its unpredictability ( some good years, some bad). Marketing of agricultural products was also
discussed.
Readings:
H. B. Gill, " Wheat Culture in Colonial Virginia," Agricultural History, LII (1978), pp. 380 -393.
H. B. Gill, " Tobacco Culture in Colonial Virginia," Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1972.
H. B. Gill, " Cereal Grains in Colonial Virginia," Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1974.
Household Economy
This short course, taught by Pat Gibbs, surveyed white urban Virginia households in the second
half of the eighteenth century and focused on these three points: ( 1) roles and responsibilites of
husband, wife, children, and servants —including slaves and apprentices; (2) relationship between
house, service yards, and outbuildings; and (3) links between households, the community, and the
world beyond.
Miss Gibbs stated that households differed according to family size and makeup, family income,
and the amount of labor available within the family.
Since the housewife was generally responsible for household affairs, her role as worker and
supervisor was emphasized in discussing daily and occasional household activities. The course
touched on the ways urban and coral households differed, especially in procurement of produce,
supplies, equipment, and services. The affects of seasonality and unexpected interruptions to the
daily routine were considered.
Because little documentation survives on this commonplace topic, the class employed historical
imagination in several group activities —
using different house types, sample menus, diary entries,
and inventories of poor, middling, and wealthy urban householders— and spent one class period
cooking simple foods.
Readings:
Jane Carson, " Plantation Housekeeping in Colonial Virginia," Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1974, pp. 1 - 54.
Pat Gibbs, " A Weekday in the Life of a Notable Eighteenth Century Williamsburg Housewife,"
research query file, January 31, 1982.
A. G. Roeber, ed., " A New England Woman' s Perspective on Norfolk, Virginia, 1801 - 1802: Ex-
cerpts from the Diary of Ruth Henshaw Bascom," Proceedings ofthe American Antiquarian Society,
LXXXVIII (1978), pp. 277 -325.
Learning from the York County Project
Kevin Kelly and Peter Bergstrom introduced their course with a question: Why did Williamsburg and Yorktown develop where they did when they did? The instructors then asked the class to
join them in the pursuit of the answer.
They first turned to the key features of Virginia' s society and economy that preceded urbanization and explored how for most of the seventeenth century the demands of tobacco culture
scattered Virginians across the land, chained planters to English merchants, and introduced social
disorder in the form of new immigrants. Not until after 1680, when these conditions began to
change, did urban growth stand much of a chance. The first day' s discussion ended with a close
look at regional differences within Virginia at the end of the seventeenth century, concluding that
the lower Tidewater —
York County area was a special place. Of particular note were the volume of
trade on the York River,the small holdings of local landowners, and the efficient agricultural
system practiced there.
iv
�The second lecture continued the look at urban preconditions inside York County. Kelly and
Bergstrom showed how the emigration of younger sons forestalled population growth, which in
rum eased demographic pressures and worked to the benefit ofthose who remained. They cited as
examples that across the county small tracts of land were the rule and that land was distributed
equally among freeholders. They also noted that many York County planters had been both
willing and able to invest heavily in slave labor by 1700 and that involvement in commercial credit
and debt networks was nearly universal among planters. Finally, they stated that some planters in
York County, especially in the upland area near Middle Plantation, had taken some significant
steps toward diversification. The discussion ended with the observation that while none of these
conditions makes urbanization inevitable, neither did they prohibit it.
The final lecture concerned the early history of the two towns and what it told about successful
urbanization. First Kelly and Bergstrom looked at who lived in town and noted that, although lots
in Yorktown were quickly sold out to well established county planters, the true urban pioneers
came only after the Naval Office was moved there in 1698. Few of these individuals were from the
countryside ofYork County—most were shopkeepers and artisans —and nearly all were committed
town dwellers. The instructors noted that while certain specifics about the background of
Williamsburg settlers differed from Yorktown's, the same general pattern existed. They explored
next what it was the town did, noting that Yorktown' s taverns provided the biggest clue to the
town's success. Designed for the care and feeding of sailors and shippers, the taverns point out the
essential service function of both early Yorktown and Williamsburg to which can be added their
roles as credit centers. In conclusion, Kelly and Bergstrom shared their feeling that, although the
jury is still out, the existing evidence suggests that towns developed where they did when they did
because of a fortuitous combination of active external factors such as a stable social order and an
efficient agricultural system.
Readings:
Joseph A. Ernst and H. Roy Merrens "' Camden' s turrets pierce the skies!': The Urban Process in
the Southem Colonies During the Eighteenth Century," William andMary Quarterly, 3rd Ser.,
XXX (1973), pp. 549 -574.
Ronald Hoffman and Carville V. Earle, " Staple Crops and Urban Development in the Eighteenth-
century South," Perspectives in American History, X (1976), pp. 7 -78.
John W. Reps, Tidewater Towns: City Planning in Colonial Virginia and Maryland (Williamsburg,
1972).
Period Clothing- - - -Linda Baumgarten's main objective in presenting this course was to explore the variety and
meaning of clothing and clothing textiles during the eighteenth century, particularly in the colony
ofVirginia. Students began by learning the period terms used for typical items of apparel from Ms.
Baumgarten' s " A Glossary of Clothing Terms" in the Interpreter' s Handbook. At the same time,
the stylistic characteristics of each item of apparel were studied. An examination of the fabrics used
for eighteenth-century clothing brought about discussion of how these fabrics were produced and
how their qualities affected the cut and " feel" of the garment when wom. Through slides and
examination of surviving antique garments, students explored the different styles wom during the
century with particular emphasis on how high -style fashion was adapted for everyday and working
situations.
Readings:
Anne Buck, Dress in Eighteenth- century England (New York, 1979).
Nancy Bradfield, Historical Costume ofEngland, rev. ed. ( London, 1970).
Peter F. Copeland, Working Dress in Colonial andRevolutionaryAmerica ( Westport, Conn., 1977).
Understanding Williamsburg Buildings
Edward Chappell divided this course into two segments, one relatively simple and definable
and the other potentially complex and open -ended. The initial step was to become familiar with
some of the known components of eighteenth-century Chesapeake buildings, ranging from
masonry and millwork details to the joining of moms in various plans and the combination of
buildings into domestic or civic groups. These components were discussed as a series of options
available to builders rather than an entirely predictable system for how things were done.
In the second segment, the class proceeded to examine the choices that were made and to
explore the reasons for their selection. For example, details that demonstrate awareness of stylistic
innovations and access to capital are expressed unevenly within a single building project, demon-
strating different degrees of social importance for various moms in a house or buildings in a
�complex.
Other questions arose, such as the apparent concentration of substantial eighteenth- century
buildings in Williamsburg. While gentry houses that equaled or surpassed the scale and expense of
Williamsburg buildings were built in the Chesapeake countryside, it is known that the majority of
Virginians and Marylanders occupied houses that were significantly inferior to most of those that
survive in Williamsburg. As with the appearance offashionable motifs in specific rooms, a series of
related reasons were found, including particular economic constituents of the town and developments within the resulting social system. To people the answers with specific cases, the class
looked at a sample of known home builders and occupants, like James Geddy, Jr., Jane Hunter,
and Edward Charlton Mr. Chappell and the students critically reviewed connections between
types of houses and the status of their occupants, while realizing that a very sizable proportion of
the population is less clearly represented by standing buildings and documents. Ultimately, they
found that using buildings as tools for understanding social systems is more valuable and interesting than appreciating them only for their attractive details.
Readings:
Paul E. Buchanan, " The Eighteenth century Frame Houses of Tidewater Virginia," in Charles
E. Paterson, ed., Building Early America: A Contribution toward the History of a Great Industry
Radnor, Pa,
1976).
Edward Chappell, " Williamsburg Architecture as Social Space," FreshAdvices ( November 1981);
P. 1.
Mark Girouard, Life in the English Country House: A Social and Architectural History (New Haven,
1978).
Williamsburg' s Public Buildings
In the study of the major public buildings in town (Capitol, Courthouse of 1770, main building
of the College, Governor' s Palace, and Bruton Parish Church) Mark R. Wenger emphasized four
themes. ( 1) Symbolism —These public buildings functioned as an integrated group of highly visible
symbols. ( 2) Permanence and order — a colony of dispersed settlements, impermanent building,
In
and no real cities these large brick edifices provided an image of permanence and order. ( 3)
Authority —As individual architectural settings, the public buildings in the colonial capital mir-
rored, and thereby strengthened, authority and the hierarchical order of society. ( 4) Interpretation— Mr. Wenger discussed ways interpreters can communicate these ideas to visitors at various
locations -n- the i
Historic Area.
Readings:
Rhys Isaac, The Transformation ofVirginia, 1740 -1790 (Chapel Hill, 1982), pp. 58- 65, 88- 98.
A. G. Roeber, " Authority, Law and Custom: The Rituals of Court Day in Tidewater Virginia,
1720 to 1750," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., XXXVII (1980), pp. 29- 38.
Marcus Whiffen, Public Buildings of Williamsburg (Williamsburg, 1958), pp. 6- 15.
Women in Chesapeake Society
This course, taught by Gail Terry, sought to provide interpreters with a broad overview of the
place of women in Maryland and Virginia during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The
class began by examining economic and demographic changes in the region during the colonial
period. Against this backdrop of social and economic change, Ms. Terry discussed changes in
women' s position and roles in the family, including family formation among Africans and AfroAmericans. The course briefly surveyed women' s work, noting especially the similar tasks women
performed at home ( without pay) and for wages. Finally, it included a summary of what con-
stituted law in seventeenth -century England and colonial Virginia, followed by a discussion of
married women' s property rights under common law ( including dower), feme -sole trader status,
and premarital contracts.
Readings:
Shomer Zwelling, " Why Historians Disagree," The interpreter (November 1980), pp. 1 - 2.
Lorena S. Walsh, " The Experience and Status of Women in the Chesapeake, 1750- 1775,"
Women' s History Packet, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, forthcoming.
Lois Green Carr and Lorena S. Walsh, " The Planter's Wife: The Experience ofWhite Women in
Seventeenth- Century Maryland," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., XXXIV ( 1977), pp.
542 - 571.
vi
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, July, 1983
Description
An account of the resource
Fresh advices, July, 1983
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/98a8c4f85a28375334255edabc015e23.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=mvlsjzr1E41I1begW7jhG3AXAExw2xC3FoGzAdhJGBtb16zW7RinpexLZhQXMdC-qCXdrhx3x3NkzPaBYFcSxfiDHNKogsnjaP7%7EezmQhvw7FaqyHF5pBe2%7EpCQ4BWK5OdBMcb%7E2eKwdttqBEpnQNhf95DVE7cDU8-UdM-h31q-hW7Gd43dDldyIhx%7Ei12d6FZCLKpdno4DqWr%7EcBkhoLwSUTiQxjT9-0OrX-rJiQJJ9x%7E8UOqeKOIn%7Ey8wyr8qHlCjYvA10mP5eRADxb2u4FC3Z6nncSp8kbpW2xW177bAGHrxXsVSD4J2i3F-TyTofjalHkaVrQhdoCKMqmAK1CA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
dd950ca3af62874149c42970920a7f10
PDF Text
Text
l RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Advices
NOVEMBER 1982
Slave Housing
by Edward Chappell, director of
architectural research
Olmstead' s description, on the other hand,
Justly and none too soon, American museums
are becoming concemed with the interpretation of slave life. Colonial Williamsburg and
fits the majority of distinguishable slave
houses that survive in Virginia. These, mostly
other institutions are recognizing that if what
we teach is to be good history, it has to deal
with a varied range of past experience rather
vided each family with a heated room on the
than reinforce traditional, homogenic images
first floor, an independent exterior entrance,
of what life was like in the old days. Because
of its substantial, complex architectural re-
D
nineteenth century,
family units under one roof. Such houses pro-
and sometimes an unheated attic for sleeping.
The duplexes are essentially doubled Anglo-
sources,
abundant
Chesapeake single room houses where the
capabilities for teaching about different life-
the
Foundation
has
contain
two
separate
their- places- with -the- minority of successful
principle space was used for cooking, sleeping, and all other domestic activities. Most
have walls of only framing and exterior
sheathing, a few windows usually fitted with
white craftsmen, merchants, and gentry rep-
solid shutters rather than glass, and a ladder
resented by the buildings and artifacts here.
The question ofwhat slave housing was like
is made difficult by uneven and biased evidence. Contemporary commentators on the
stair to the unfinished attic space. Their size
styles.
Doing so is important if blacks,
women, and ordinary white men are to take
and finish are probably comparable to most
houses
occupied
by
eighteenth- century
whites below the middling class.
It is important to realize that these well -
subject were usually apologists, romantics,
or —
less often —people with strong negative
built duplexes existed in the later years of the
feelings about the system. However, we can
find answers through careful fieldwork and
slavery system and at the top of a housing
hierarchy. Key to understanding slave housing is recognition of its diversity. Some variety
critical analysis of the records that do exist.
The shortage of detailed descriptions is in-
involves historical change, because the range
dicated by the regularity with which a few
of housing may have improved considerably
references are quoted. Probably the best
between 1775 and 1861. Fieldwork shows that
known are the record of a Georgia Sea Island
slave, Okra, who angered his owner by build-
building in general grew in specialization and
quality in the early nineteenth- century
ing a house that was recognizably African in
Chesapeake, and as slaveholders' commit-
character and Frederick Law Olmstead' s de-
ment to a controlled and efficient work force
scription of slave houses on a Virginia farm in
the 1850s. Okra' s story is significant because it
grew, slave housing received particular attention. This is illustrated by surviving buildings
is rare evidence for the survival of African
as well as the relatively repetitive specifications
culture in American building. Similar buildings were seldom recorded, and the only physical evidence may be archaeological.
in nineteenth -century publications like Southern Planter and Soil ofthe South. But the biases
continued, p. ii)
i
�house that six slaves and an overseer shared.
Housing, continued
of both sources are revealed by slave narratives and by George McDaniel' s recent book,
Hearth and Home. Working primarily in east em Maryland, McDaniel has been especially
successful in tracking down details about the
use in nineteenth century black housing of
less expensive building alternatives, such as
wooden chimneys,
The house " was not lathed or plaistered,
neither ceiled nor lofted above . . .
one
window, but no glass in it, not even a brick
chimney, and as it stood on blocks, about a
foot above the ground, the hogs lay constantly
under the floor, which made it swarm with
flies." The house was probably typical,
although it was clearly superior to the one
thatched roofs, and earth
Curle' s slaves occupied.
floors. So it seems that well built slave hous-
Except on the largest plantations, a major-
ing was largely a nineteenth -century phenomenon, experienced by a minority of slaves.
ity of eighteenth -century slaves may have
In 1774 Joseph Ball wrote to his nephew in
Virginia with specific instructions for the care
lived in parts of buildings that were principally
larly concemed about a man named Soss,
built either for work or white housing. Virginia
Gazette advertisements listing dwellings and
outbuildings in Williamsburg and other towns
whose house seems to have approached the
virtually never mention separate quarters.
best nineteenth century standards.
The 1730 inventory of Henry Bowcock in-
and housing of certain slaves. He was particu-
must be fill' d between
cluded " 1 Servants bed and furniture [ at £]
1. 10. -" on the second floor of his York County
the studs with the worst of the bricks
house. Forty years later Landon Carter wrote
laid tight In with Ordinary Mortar: but it
must be Underpinn' d first. And I will
about two slaves who lived " in their loft" at
Sabine Hall. The Robert Carter House on
have a Chimny made up in Soss End
Palace Green contains remants of a plaster and
The Quarter ...
continued, p. iv)
against the brick wall that is to be between him and the other Negroes; and
his Chimney must be well Plaistered ..
Soss shared the duplex with a group of unnamed slaves, and their side was to receive
Recommended Reading
similar attention.
And I will have a Chimny made up in the
middle
of
the
other
part;
and
Related to Slave Housing
well
plaster' d also; and the Loft lay' d with
James O. Breedan, ed. Advicejmong Masten.
the old plank. And the South side must
Westport, Conn., 1980.
Eugene D. Genovese. Roll, Jordan, Roll.
New York, 1976.
be double cover' d, and there must be
Good plank Doors, and well hung with
there must be locks to
And the floors must be
the Doors....
rais' d higher than the Ground without.
Iron hinges ...
Herbert G. Gutman. The Black Family in Slav-
ery and Freedom, 1750 -1925. New York,
1976.
that his slaves occupied two types of houses,
George W. McDaniel. Hearth and Home.
Philadelphia, 1982.
Gerald W. Mullin. Flight and Rebellion.
London, 1972.
Charles L. Perdue, Jr., Thomas E. Barden,
and Robert K. Phillips, eds. Weevils in the
Wheat. Charlottesville, 1976.
Favored or otherwise, most slaves fared far
worse. In the 1750s, blacks on David Curle' s
plantation in Elizabeth City County lived " in
a pen made of Poles and covered with Pine Brush, and in bad weather retire to the Neighbors for Shelter." George Washington wrote
the largest kind" and " the smaller one or
Dell Upton. " Early Vemacular Architecture
cabbins." The latter seem to have been small
in Southeastem Virginia." Ph. D. disserta-
indeed, because they could be moved about
tion, Brown University, 1979.
Peter H. Wood. Black Majority. New York,
with minimal assistance from his carts. In 1784
1975.
J. F. D. Smyth recorded his experience in a
ii
1)
�Robert Carter III:
Transformation of a Patriarch
The daily existence of the Carters of Nomini
Hall has been examined many times; after all,
Philip Fithian' s diary is one of the colonial
century Virginia entailed risk and social
historian' s main sources of information on
more, Mrs. Carter didn' t share her husband' s
family life. Shomer Zwelling took a longer
religious sentiments; consequently, life in-
view. He studied Fithian' s journal in conjunc-
side Nomini Hall became even more strained.
abuse. It was a major change for a member of
the gentry and a former councillor. Further-
Carter grew ill in early 1780 and withdrew to
tion with Robert Carter's extensive writings,
take stock of himself and his life. When he
emerged from his seclusion, he was a believer
including his little used papers in the Sweden borgian archives in Newton, Massachusetts.
The combination gives us greater depth and
detail.
in Swedenborgianism.
This Christian sect, based on the writings of
Zwelling sees the Carters as a family with
Swedish mystic Emanuel Swedenborg, called
severely strained relationships, partly because
for profound self examination and individualism. In his new faith Carter attained a feel-
of the father and partly because of the times
they lived in. During the last thirty years ofhis
ing of innocence, a sense of affirmation and
life Robert Carter was forced to deal with
usefulness, and a way to be assertive but not
domineering.
three critical situations. The Revolutionary
War, a series of illnesses in the family, and his
By the late 1780s Robert Carter was, volun-
own religious experiences changed him in im-
tarily, a patriarch without a family. He had
portant ways, and each affected the family
dramatically.
shipped off two sons to Rhode Island for
The Revolution. Carter, living at Nomini
Hall in remote Westmoreland County after
over four years— even when their mother died
leaving Williamsburg in 1772, remained politically uncommitted. He sought in the
intimacies of family life a refuge from a com-
sent three daughters to live in Baltimore. The
oldest son was dead. For the rest of his short
life, Bob, the troubled child, alternated bet-
bative, competitive, and heartless world. In-
ween trying to behave and running off to
stead of finding peace and tranquility on the
plantation, the Carter family lived in a state of
England.
schooling and didn' t allow them to return for
in 1787. Shortly after Mrs. Carter' s death, he
stress. Tension was especially strong between
As a Swedenborgian, Robert Carter III became a democratic man and freed nearly 500
the father and his second son Robert Bladen
slaves. In 1793 he moved to Baltimore, and
Carter. Zwelling sees Bob as the " symp-
until his death ten years later, served as a
tomatic member" of the household, his be-
leader in
havioral problems indicating unsettling relationships within the family.
Swedenborgianism was formally called.
the New Jerusalem Church,
as
Other Virginians of the time felt anxiety
Robert Carter' s life spanned the old order
and the new, the death of the colonial era and
and expressed their rage toward the British.
the republic' s infancy. Zwelling concludes
Robert Carter directed those feelings inward
on himself and his kin.
that Robert Carter III experienced —in the
Illnesses. Both parents were gravely affected
life —
the difficulties of transforming patri-
affairs of his country, as well as in his personal
archy into democracy.
by their oldest son' s poor health and early
LP
death. Mr. and Mrs. Carter had their own
ailments too. He was given to fainting spells.
She suffered many phobias and, in her own
Shomer Zwelling' s paper on Robert Carter
words, was " always supposing the worst."
III and all the recommended readings on slave
Religious Experiences. In June 1777 Robert
Carter received a "
housing are available through the Research
most gracious Illumina-
Center.
tion" from God and converted to the Baptist
faith. Being a Baptist in late eighteenth-
iii
�laced system of segregation existed in the
Housing, continued
clapboard partition that likely marked the
brick work building behind the Archibald
presence of domestic servants' sleeping area
Blair House. Occupants of an attic room used
in the unventilated attic. That this remained a
common condition in Williamsburg into the
following century is implied by a 1823 letter to
Dr. A. D. Galt complaining that available
an independent stairway that rose from an
outside doorway discreetly located at the rear
of the building.
More common in the eighteenth century
houses lacked separate quarters, with the re-
was the use of unspecialized secondary space
sult that servants " have to stay in the base-
in dairies, kitchens, and the like. Slaves'
ment or the garret rooms,"
rooms are difficult to locate in inventories despite occasional indications of domestic fur-
a condition that
you know cannot be very agreeable to Vir-
nishings, as in the 1750 inventory of Daniel
Homby' s Richmond County estate that lists
ginians."
Because some slaves shared a roof with their
owners did not mean that the two groups lived
In the Kitchen Loft. 1 Bedstead, 1 old Bed
and 1 Bolster. 1 old Cattail Bed." The fact that
together as a family. White concem for privacy
many such rooms were unheated illustrates
from slaves was an increasing force, as indicated by architectural systems in late eigh-
their weakly defined role as domestic space. A
revealing reference comes from a 1770 Vir-
teenth- and early nineteenth -century houses.
ginia Gazette advertisement for the sale of
In westem Virginia and Kentucky, for example, a common system involved placing a
kitchen or laundry at the end of a rear ell, with
sleeping space above. Although the slaves'
Market Square Tavem. In it Thomas Craig
lists a variety of buildings associated with the
tavern, including " a large and strong smoke-
work and domestic rooms were attached to the
house, there was no intemal circulation be-
sleep in." The wording is especially useful
tween the two social realms. Often the de-
because it describes the function of the space.
pendency had only an exterior entrance, and
the bedroom was reached by a stair from a
Craig viewed the place solely as an area for
second outside doorway. Robert Beverley in a
of the work day, not as a private domain in
1787 newspaper advertisement described a
which cooking, eating, talking, and other
similar Middlesex County arrangement. The
two -story house had a wing that contained
social activities could take place.
four rooms: " two very commodious rooms
then, a variety of settings is appropriate.
and closets neatly finished, and a laundry and
Throughout the era of slavery, blacks experi-
servants room over it."
The assemblage of detached work build-
enced conditions that varied according to mar-
house, at one end of it a place for people to
sleeping, where one might collapse at the end
In interpreting slave life at Williamsburg,
ings that accompanied slave owners' houses
ital status, position in the work force, and
owners' inclinations. While the buildings of
provided secondary spaces that ranged from
most whites as well as blacks were poor by
private domestic quarters to an open comer
modem
where a person could fall asleep. At best, a
sistently occupied the lower reaches of the
building was especially planned to accommo-
range. Moreover, unlike their white contem-
date slave groups or individuals in relative
poraries, slaves had little choice in determin-
privacy and comfort. For example, an early
ing the quality of their housing.
American
standards,
slaves
con-
nineteenth -century loom house at Prestwould
in Mecklenburg County contained two work
rooms on the first floor and a pair of domestic
rooms in the attic, both equipped with cook-
ing fireplaces. Although the attic was unfinished and treated as inferior to the rooms
below, considerable thought was given to in-
An occasional supplement to The Interpreter newsletter,
Fresh Advires is the coordinated effort of Colonial
suring the privacy of its occupants. This was
Williamsburg's research departments.
Editor:
done through the innovative use of a small
Lou Powers
Assistant Editors: Arthur Bames and Harold Gill
Editorial Board: Barbara Beaman, John Caramia,
George Collins, Dennis O' Toole, Sumpter Priddy III,
lobby placed in front of the central chimney.
While the work rooms were entered directly
from the outside, the lobby gave access to
Jane Strauss, and Bill Tramposch
separate stairs for each domestic unit. A re-
iv
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, November, 1982
Description
An account of the resource
Slave Housing -- Robert Carter III: Transformation of a Patriarch
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/70699448a526631ebd018bdbb1fd598b.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=aVJ3lvI-Z-2wFc6eAq%7EFETBSylH4eEfQAdBM3eAO7PHGXMJ8av7c%7E7hnuYZX5Z6TDLz4LtzQnYf97RsuGd4MnU9PGh2Twy9gwZrwtLBtFrhzTt46F7BBl9PEoQrPJRGxiCKEp1w5ubls6Rg8eSqOGp7gQe%7ElXHcsmXv4fMbtYsMcYPYnPLrFdfEyFoMePgnAQtrnmRNaNE2kM6jbgoqPO8PJi5TldSKcIx8rXndZmTeylSujv6lx-Dhya0uGxd%7EDmMoLQk-ihHG-G2KDaYDeCGzil7i--adShVK-pzH9hSHJxEw77-MIHk5TdEjrdzPHa4ZzC7s20OaXYHZTVtcF6A__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
c2e9c8f3a09e549f0d003ac691c6e103
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Advices
NOVEMBER 1981
Williamsburg Architecture
tangular public spaces, it was a large -scale
as Social Space
ordering effort that required alteration of the
landscape and removal of buildings that failed
by Edward Chappell, directorof
to conform to the new order.
Similar concern for order can be seen in
individual domestic complexes, as in the
architectural research
Like fine arts, economic theory, and social
welfare, architecture is open to a wide range of
tendency to arrange facade window and door
interpretations. A striking example is the
placement of a house at the center of a more or
openings symmetrically and in the occasional
Royal Crescent in Bath, that classic monu-
less balanced configuration of outbuildings.
ment of expensive English domestic design
The broad social context of such ordering of
and town planning. One writer describes the
Crescent as a building of "elegant beauty and
architectural elements has received consider-
magnificent proportions," while another sees
Glassie and James Deetz.
able attention, especially in the work of Henry
it as a " sort of collective palace for an itin-
The concern for order was a pervasive force
erant and socially mobile agrarian capitalist
that affected functional as well as visual
arrangements. From the late Middle Ages on-
elite."
The point is that architectural history, like
conventional history, is not an attempt to col-
ward, functions within buildings were increas-
ingly separated into different rooms. Archi-
lect and accurately present all knowable infor-
tectural historian Dell Upton has compiled
mation about its subject. Construction meth-
statistics from room -by -room inventories to
ods and materials are the focus of questions
most often asked by visitors, and they are
questions that we shouldte able to answer in
show that the most common house occupied
by late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
detail. Rather than the final objects of our
on each of two floors, usually within a one -
inquiries, though, these details need to be the
basis for weighty, interpretive questions that
and -a -half - tory form. The first -loor rooms
s
f
Virginians of affluence consisted of two rooms
were most often a " hall" ( principal living
are framed by our interest in different people
room) and a smaller " chamber,"
and cultures. To be good history our answers
called a " parlor" ( the main bedroom). The
second -floor rooms were used for sleeping.
Upton has also found an increased incidence
should be more than the sum of their component sources —
whether they are diaries and
inventories or room proportions and beaded
siding.
In recent years architectural historians have
used buildings as background for asking questions about how social ideas and conditions
changed over time. Two principal changes
that American and British scholars have begun
sometimes
as the eighteenth century wore on of a third
first -floor room, which was most often used as
a dining room.
Functions and room proportions could be
combined in a number of ways. For example,
a hall and chamber might be arranged parallel
to the street, as at the George Reid House, or
a parallel
the hall might be placed in front of the chamber to form a double -pile building, like the
growth in concem for buildings that express
Tayloe House. A third room was sometimes
their owner' s position in the community. The
sion of environmental order in Williamsburg is
contained in a rear ell like that at the Geddy
House and sometimes incorporated into a
compact plan like that of the Robert Carter
the town plan. A simplified baroque design
House. Altemately, three rooms could form
with straight streets, visual axes, and rec-
the basis for a more self-consciously stylish
to define are people' s increasing desire for
order in
their environment and
most evident, as well as the earliest, expres-
continued, p. ii)
�Architecture, continued
design like the Semple House. In short,
houses with different exterior appearances
could contain similar combinations of social
the total absence of surviving Williamsburg
structures built solely to house slaves.
Further, we know that ideas about architec- rT
ture did not remain static in eighteenth -
spaces.
An element somewhat common to the various combinations,
and
especially prevalent
century Williamsburg. When the Governor's
Palace was begun in
1706, it must have
circulation space allowing independent access
seemed a very odd dwelling to Virginians,
whose previous experience with such building
to the different rooms. The most common
scale in the region was confined to the public
circulation
buildings at opposite ends of Duke of Glou-
among surviving Williamsburg houses, is a
space
was
a
rectangular
passage
Waller House) or beside them ( like in the Pal-
cester Street. Despite its initial position as an
unequaled domestic complex, the original
mer House). An alternative more common to
Palace satisfied governors' social needs for less
running between the rooms ( as at the Powell -
New England than to the Chesapeake was a
than a half-century. Beyond its passages and
small lobby in front of a central chimney. Archaeology indicates that the easternmost part
of the Peyton Randolph House probably began as a lobby- entrance house. Like passages,
service rooms, the first floor was, after all,
little more than one of Upton' s three -room
lobbies sometimes contained stairs, although
Governor Dinwiddie and others desired, and
lobbies in the eighteenth- century additions to
the rear ell was -added. The new wing contained only two rooms, a large dining room
Wetherburn' s
Tavern
and
the John
Blair
plans. By 1751 its rooms were considered too
confining for the type of entertaining that
with the square proportions of a hall and a
House lack them.
The desire for separation of functions ex-
ballroom with the astounding length of forty-
pressed by passages and lobbies is more
graphically demonstrated by suppressed kit-
seven and a half feet. Lord Botetourt' s note
chens. Because of the heat, smells, and ac-
that " Fifty two dined with me yesterday, and
I expect at least that number today" repre-
tivities of cooking, as well as the people work-
sents a scale of public entertainment that was
ing there, kitchens were removed to cellars (as
at the Blair House and Redwood Ordinary) or,
more often, to detached buildings. While
there may be some truth to modern notions
about danger from cooking fires, the high sur-
possible only after enlargement of the Palace.
vival rate for these early service buildings in
This mid century development at the Palace can be related to changes in private houses
and taverns in Williamsburg. Dinwiddie' s desire for additional public space was shared by
the community who extended their buildings
rural Virginia indicates that social and functional segregation was the principal reason for
with smaller but comparable additions. Per-
detached kitchens. It was not until after the
Civil War that most kitchens were incorpo-
House. When built early in the eighteenth
century, the western part of the Randolph
rated into the main building of substantial
House was one of the most substantial houses
haps the best example is the Peyton Randolph
households in the Chesapeake.
in Williamsburg. Its owner apparently was
Although concern for order and privacy
grew in the eighteenth century, a twentieth -
William Robertson, a prominent member of
the colony' s political elite and clerk of the
century level of delicacy was neither possible
nor probably desired. We know, for example,
Council for thirty - ight years. His house was a
e
that at certain times the view from Palace
Green included industrial waste from the
stair lobby on each floor. Its facade, oriented
toward North England Street, was frankly
Geddy property and the tar- covered clapboard
roof of the Brush -Everard House. Tall fences
enclosed more horses and cows than formal
asymmetrical because the exterior door open-
parterres at the rear of domestic lots, and the
two men of similar political and social posi-
same fences were the only barriers between
importantly, most Virginians lived in houses
tion. The first, John Randolph, variously held
the offices of clerk and speaker of the House
of Burgesses, attorney general, and treasurer
vegetable gardens and street animals. More
full two stories high with three rooms and a
ed into the corner lobby.
After about 1724 the house was owned by
by modern standards —
of the colony. Peyton, his son, was speaker of
poorly built, a characteristic that has usually
the house and president of the Continental
precluded their survival. The fact that this
Congress. Around mid -century the. Ran dolphs transformed the building by adding a
that were tiny and —
was especially true for blacks is indicated by
continued, p. iv)
�A Colonial Urban
Housewife' s Schedule
In the following conjectural timetable Pat Gibbs
lays out the weakday routine of a well to -do house-
serves
fruits
and
vegetables,
salts
down
meats, or makes sausages.
On Wednesdays and Saturdays the Wil-
liamsburg housewife would procure fresh
meats, fish, dairy products, and produce from
the market. She might shop or send a member
of her staff. ( Because of the market twice a
wife in an eighteenth -century Virginia town. De-
week,
spite Pat's wide survey ofavailable sources, she has
around gardens, diaries, and poultry yards
than plantation mistresses. Williamsburg in-
had to make educated guesses in places. Letters,
local
housewives
spent
less
time
diaries, books of advice on domestic economy, and
ventories list few garden tools, few milk pans
reminiscences of how the best households operated
give us telling, but incomplete, information. Pat
and churns, and no fowl.)
Just before 2: 00 P: M. she checks on the
also compiled an expanded version with rationale
kitchen help' s progress with dinner and then
and footnotes that is available in the research de-
goes to her room to freshen up and maybe
partment. As you will see, this schedule applies to
change outer garments before dinner.
the homemaker with an extensive staff, so her work
is mainly supervisory.
At about 6: 00 A. M. she rises, awakens the
family, and sees that breakfast preparations
have begun. ( If a trusted maid is part of the
staff and the maid assures her that the house-
hold is up and at work, the lady of the house
might not leave her chamber.) Freshening up,
dressing, and arranging her hair are part of the
morning routine, of course. Some women
used the couple of hours before breakfast to
listen to the children' s catechism and prayers
and for their own private devotions.
J
Near 7: 30 A. M. the exemplary housewife
About 2: 00 P. M. she presides over the
table with her family and guests. Dinner, the
most elaborate meal of the day, was also the
most formal and the longest.
Just after dinner she sees that the kitchen
is put in order and directs the afternoon' s bak-
ing of hot breads for supper and of desserts
and bread for the next day' s dinner.
Beginning about 4: 00 P. M. the housewife
has three hours or so of her own time, since the
staff has already received instructions for the
whole working day. She shops at local stores or
pays visits to friends or to the sick or needy. If
she stays home, she gives needlework lessons
surveys the house and kitchen (and maybe the
to young daughters, practices music, reads, or
garden as well) to see what tasks need to be
entertains friends over tea or coffee.
accomplished that day and to make certain
that the morning meal will be served on time.
About 7: 30 P. M. she checks on the preparations for supper, which was generally little
more than a snack and very simple to get
At 8: 00 A. M. breakfast is served, and the
housewife spends a half - our at table with her
h
family. ( Sunday breakfasts were later and
longer in some homes.)
Beginning about 8: 30 AM. while the slaves
and servants eat breakfast, the lady of the
ready.
8: 00 P. M. is suppertime for the family and
guests, and afterwards she sees that the kitchen is put in order and fires are banked for the
night.
house washes the fine glasses and china, then
From about 8: 30 P. M. until 10: 00 or
arranges serving pieces and condiments for
11: 00 P. M. the housewife, her family, and
the dinner table. After the staff finishes eat-
guests socialize at home or with neighbors.
ing, the mistress gives orders to the cook and
Their evening activities include conversation,
measures out ingredients for each dinner dish;
singing, listening to music, reading aloud, and
then instructs other workers on their chores
playing cards. Occasionally the lady and her
for the day and gives them the necessary
husband might attend plays, lectures, or balls.
The woman who used her time this way
was, of course, the ideal housewife and man-
supplies.
From about 10: 00 A. M. to 2: 00 P. M. the
mistress supervises work in and around the
house, perhaps assisted by teenaged daughters while younger children receive lessons.
Daily household chores include cooking,
cleaning, dairying, and gardening. Two to
four times a month there is washing and ironing to be done. Depending on the season, the
staff cuts out and sews clothing, knits, pre-
ager. The routine as set out here was always
subject to disruptions due to illness in the
household, mothering of infants, and the
training of new household slaves.
The College of William and Mary and some
Virginia households began their schedules an
hour later in wintertime to take better advantage of natural light.
�Architecture, continued
house and the ( now reconstructed) lobby -
early architecture is the lack of precise dating
for many of our buildings. Until we know who
entrance house to the east.
built or added to buildings and at what point in
four - ay section between the
b
Robertson
Everything about the addition reveals a de-
their careers they made these choices, our
sire for increased social space and enhanced
interpretations will be somewhat limited.
architectural imagery. Each floor contained a
Archival
large square hall and a passage approximately
analysis provide information about some con -
twice the size of the old lobby. Like the stairs
in the Wythe and Brush -Everard houses, the
struction dates; others are entirely uncertain.
sources
combined with
structural
One potential source for such information is
dendrochronology, or tree -ring dating, which
has recently supplied exact building dates for
new stair was designed for visual effect as well
as circulation, and its landing was lighted by a
some Chesapeake buildings. For example, we
now know that Bacon' s Castle was built in
great round -headed window similar to those at
Rosewell in Gloucester County. As part of the
1665.
general upgrading, paneling was added to
earlier rooms, and the status of the new hall as
the principal room for entertaining was emphasized with walnut doors, brass hinges, and
Like more
traditional means of re-
search, dendrochronology is only a tool that
can provide data. It is the responsibility of
thoughtful historians to use this information
an imported marble mantel. Because the Ran -
not as an end in itself, but as material toward
dolph' s house was the result of enlargements,
the interpretation of the town' s social history.
its exterior does not have the perfectly or-
dered appearance of houses constructed in
one campaign, like the Wythe and LudwellParadise houses. The intentions behind the
design of its elevation are, however, the same.
Recommended Reading
Books and Articles Related to
The front of the main block facing Market
Architecture as Social Space
Square is a roughly symmetrical seven -bay
facade, while the elements of change are
Cary Carson. " Doing History with Material
clearly evident on the rear.
Culture" in Material Culture and the Study of
American Life, ed. Ian M. G. Quimby. New
In the same era Wetherbum' s Tavem and
the John Blair and Benjamin Waller houses
were extended with large new halls. The so-
York, N. Y., 1978.
James Deetz. In Small Things Forgotten.
cial- significance of these rooms was again em-
Garden City, N. Y., 1977.
phasized by their details. Wetherbum' s and
the Blair halls were fitted with marble mantels, and the mantel in the Waller hall was
Henry Glassie. Folk Housing in Middle Vir-
flanked by buffets for displaying family pos-
Fraser D. Neiman. " Domestic Architecture at
ginia. Knoxville, Tenn., 1975.
sessions. In each case the new rooms were
the Clifts Plantation," Northern Neck of Vir-
given independent access through a passage
ginia Historical Magazine, XVIII ( December 1978).
or lobby. The Apollo Room at the Raleigh
Marcus Whiffen. The Eighteenth- century Houses
Tavern was another prominent entertainment
space, one with a relatively elaborate interior
of Williamsburg. Williamsburg, Va., 1960.
documented by Benson Lossing' s nineteenth- century engraving. It is worth nothing
Dell Upton. " Vernacular Domestic Planning
in Eighteenth- century Virginia," Winter thurPortfolio, XVII (1982), forthcoming.
that the Apollo first appeared in the records in
1751, before the wing was added to the Palace. The date suggests that the governor' s
ballroom was part of a mid century trend, not
necessarily the precursor of fashion.
An occasional supplement to The Interpreter newsletter,
Building forms and details are interesting
subjects
Fresh Advice: is the coordinated effort of Colonial
for historical as well as aesthetic
Williamsburg' s research departments.
analysis. Those few described here evince a
Editor;
social climate in which substantial architec-
Assistant Editors:
tural images and large -scale spaces for enter-
Editorial Board: Barbara Beaman, Cary Carson, George
Collins, Dennis O'Toole, Sumpter Priddy III, Jane
tainment became more important.
Lou Powers
Harold Gill and Shame( Zwelling
Strauss, and Bill Tramposch.
One problem confronting the development
of a fuller social context for Williamsburg' s
1981 by The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
iv
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, November, 1981
Description
An account of the resource
Williamsburg Architecture as Social Space -- A Colonial Urban Housewife's Schedule
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/c893b38fbb4526250c60844e90ceb4f0.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=W9xS4Xi5woolFjI7NEl43h8JgxDv0v5aOb23Rl45moMiTj-2KgcPPuhJH%7Eivz99JPTjZdZE8%7EODnyNre8iwj2EZ4FEETHYdSxKecpfRk4CMnhy4qrPG%7E610PqKkGoiYGPz-nimmup6vHMbZUHW2MWfGTLa4GKGMXpY9dxu-qub40C1STCInv4oZPESGO9DVOPEdgnHOIfEqHLvSDADTsf1ohFuqdDyQPj9aXJSQZWOFAGo0vv5WadmHn504ktBluHdvr-2wTDKywy1uoVHGU3m9XeMxwRSaDc5m7IF6EGodblQPDvTGIIQEoiXsT-9CyNNF5iyewc-14MqLaoTZxvw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
4962f01d144cf06a09ff99f206f85562
PDF Text
Text
A RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Fresh Avices
JANUARY 1981
Update from the Director of
Research
Most of the department' s work comes in the
Late -breaking news from the eighteenth century? "Hot copy" two hundred years old? Why
form of specific requests, nowadays mainly
try house and discovers Lord Botetourt' s
household account books missing and pre-
from the Program Planning and Review Committee. The York County Project got started
another way. It was invented and organized
entirely " in house" when staff historians
sumed lost for two centuries! A computer at
asked themselves the question, " What kind
the College flies into action and seconds later
of history should Colonial Williamsburg be
teaching that it isn' t teaching now ?" Their
not? It happens all the time. Graham Hood
rummages through papers in an English coun-
prints out for the first time since the founding
of Yorktown a complete list of that settle-
answer went something like this: " There can
hardly be a better place than a restored eigh-
ment' s initial investors!
The past is full of " fresh advices." The
teenth century town and a nearby plantation
to show visitors how transplanted European
and African cultures developed over a period
problem is getting them to interpreters
promptly. It is the stubbom nature of reports,
books, articles, and catalogs — if they treat a
topic broadly and thoroughly — to take a long
time in writing. It often takes longer still for
of years a distinctively American character, an
identity and an allegiance to home -grown interests that explain the colony' s eventual separation from England." A similar idea, sum-
their information to filter down into training
marized in the phrase ` Becoming Americans," was later identified by the Interpretive
materials. The process itself cannot be hur-
ried up very much, but there may be shortcuts
by
whichirnportancpieces of information can
be released before they are eventually joined
Practices Committee as the central historical
up with other pieces to make a final report or
Williamsburg would be organized in the
publication. A periodic research supplement
1980s.
theme round which interpretation at Colonial
to The Interpreter is one such solution. Pub-
Studying social change in the colonial period is easier said than done, especially given
lished two or three times a year, it offers the
Foundation' s historians, archaeologists, cura-
tors,
architectural historian's,
Virginia' s imperfect and incomplete records.
continued, p. iv)
and preserva-
tionists a forum to discuss current research and
call attention to opportunities in the Historic
Area
where
advices" —
new
information — "fresh
New Towns, 1690 — 1720
can be used by interpreters.
This maiden issue of the supplement is
devoted to the much talked about but so far
At the November 1980 meeting of the South em Historical Association Kevin Kelly and Pe-
little seen York County Project, the largest
and most labor- intensive study undertaken by
the research department in many years. Two
York County Project. The title of their paper
ter Bergstrom presented the first results of the
was '
historians on our regular staff, plus nine more
Well Built Towns, convenient ports
hired with funds received from the National
and markets': The Beginnings of Yorktown,
1690 - 1720." From their analysis of the earli-
Endowment for the Humanities, are busy
est York County data, Kelly and Bergstrom
reading every page in every book of the York
County court records from the 1630s ( when
advanced a theory of urbanization that is a
the records begin) to 1820 or ' 30. The scope
Chesapeake towns.
refinement
over
other
scholars'
work
on
and complexity of the project are not alone in
Since November these two historians have
making it different from other assignments.
continued, p. ii)
i
�Setting the Record Straight
New Towns, continued
tabulated Williamsburg data, and we present
here in summary form information on early
residents of both York County towns.
Yorktown lots were bought up in two
batches. Some sold when they first became
Estate Inventories
Harddd Gi11 has worked with colonial Virginia
recordsfor twentyfive years. In thefollowing dis-
available in 1692. The people who bought lots
cussion he explains the purposes and limitations of
then stand out as a different group from subse-
estate inventories.
Inventories are invaluable sources of infor-
quent purchasers of Yorktown lots and buyers
mation for historians, curators, and interpre-
of Williamsburg lots. Kevin Kelly' s idea is that
these initial purchasers were motivated by
ters; but, like any other piece of evidence,
they must be used with both care and discretion. Taken by court- appointed agents upon
what he calls " civic mindedness" to invest in
the town at its establishment. Among the first
buyers were many planters well established in
the county for years and years. Their " civic
the death of the owner, estate inventories are
lists of personal property such as slaves, fumi-
mindedness" made the town a success from
ture, clothing, tools, household utensils, and
the start, because the county' s expenses for
livestock. In most instances the court agents
establishing
paid off right
also appraised the values of items — usually in
away. ( Other Virginia towns dragged out for
cash amount but sometimes in pounds of to-
years
bacco. By comparing a large number of estate
the town were
the reimbursement
of their start-up
costs.) The first buyers were obviously taking
inventories from a specific place over a period
on the lots as investments only; few left their
of time, historians — like the members of the
plantations and actually moved to town.
The second wave of lot buyers got their
research team working on the York County
Yorktown lots after 1692, mostly in 1698.
They are a more representative sample of
wealth distribution, slave holdings, and capital investment, as well as how these factors
townspeople, both in comparison to Williams-
changed during the period under considera-
burg and to Yorktown as a whole. Less than 30
tion.
Project — are able to draw conclusions about
In some instances the inventory or appraise -
percent were known residents of rural York or
James City county when deeds were drawn up
for their Yorktown or Williamburg lots. About
ment ( as the document is called if the agents
two- thirds gave Williamsburg or Yorktown as
room breakdown of items. Governor Bote-
then residence at the time of purchase; these
tourt' s possessions at the Palace, as you know,
were the urban " pioneers" who came from
outside the area to live in new tidewater
are listed that way. It is not unusual to see
towns. In other words, most had no previous
even " in the Chamber over the Parlour" in
tie to the area at all. Few ( about 20 percent)
inventories. Such information helps modern
are known to have owned land other than their
day researchers understand how the colonists
town lots.
used rooms, and it also gives clues about rela-
In Yorktown and especially in Williamsburg
there was among early lot owners a large number of craftsmen, professionals, and ordinary
keepers. The services they offered imply that
tionships within the household.
the town drew customers from outside the
cities' limits and brought in a clientele that
The occupational structures of Yorktown
law in Virginia from the early seventeenth
century that every estate be inventoried, the
law was never fully complied with. In short,
many estates were not inventoried. Did they
belong to the poor? the wealthy? those some-
and Williamsburg gave Kelly and Bergstrom
where in between? We simply do not know.
new ideas about the establishment of Chesa-
economy. Contrary to other theories of urbanization, York County towns were not just cen-
There is good reason to belive that the elderly
are underrepresented in the records; by the
time of their deaths many had already given
away their possessions in exchange for maintenance while they lived.
tralized points for processing and shipping tobacco. Williamsburg and Yorktown offered
inventories do not include real property such
assigned values) actually gives a room -by-
headings like " in the Hall," " in the Store," or
Notwithstanding the richness of the source,
these documents have their own peculiar problems. For example, even though it had been
could not get these services in the countryside.
peake towns. Services offered by townspeople were not tied to the area' s agricultural
A second problem arises from the fact that
as land, buildings, perishables, and crops in
services that made them true urban areas.
ii
0
�the fields. Only movable items — personal
property — were enumerated. As a result, ar-
chitectural fittings like bookcases and cupboards nailed to the wall, for example, as well
Black Family Life
as stationary equipment like cider presses fastened to the ground, were systematically ex-
half the people in Williamsburg and York
By the eve of the American Revolution over
County were black slaves. It follows that any
cluded.
Thirdly, some historians claim that execu-
social history of this area is incomplete unless
it includes them. Evidence about eighteenth century black families and communities is ex-
tors or the family of the deceased purposely
concealed some items from the appraisers
when inventories were taken. Appraisers of-
tremely rare. For this reason, estate inven-
ten noted that they examined " such part of
the estate...
tories— despite their shortcomings — are an
as was brought to our view."
important source of information. York County
Was this a hedge in which they were legally
inventories, when used carefully, provide us
real
with one of the few possible views of the local
grounds for suspicion? More likely, the executors did not conceal anything, but other
eighteenth -century black family experience.
It's an intriguing picture.
protecting
themselves
or were
there
property on the premises was claimed by other
The inventories reveal a general rise by
members of the household. In the few cases
where it is possible to compare the will, inventory, and orphan' s account of a single decedent, we have found instances in which the
names of certain slaves appear in one docu-
1770 in the number of planters who owned
eleven or more slaves. At the same time the
number of inventories listing any slaves at all
also increased. Larger holdings (by increasing
the field of eligible mates) should have im-
ment but not all three. Whether or not the
proved the chances of slaves to marry within
their home plantation groups. Furthermore as
exclusion was intentional we have no way of
knowing.
more planters acquired slaves,
Finally, some inventories are the products
persed slave groups throughout the county,
the distance and isolation between them di-
of sloppy appraisers. Mathematical errors are
the most obvious kind of carelessness, and
minished and interaction increased. This
should have improved the likelihood of mar-
they are far from rare.
pGiven the facts that not every estate was
riages between slaves living on neighboring
inventoried and that even the best inventory
plantations. These figures, taken from inventories, indicate favorable prospects for black
does not include the entire estate, it is understandable- why historians must exercise cau-
family formation.
Yet the inventories also disclose conditions
unsuited for stable family development. Al-
tion in dealing with even the best sources.
though the overall balance between adult
From the Editor
black men and women evened out by 1770,
most individual plantation were still char-
Here we begin a series of articles on documents and their uses. Mr. Gill' s article on
estate inventories has as a companion piece
acterized by severe imbalances. Households
with equal numbers of men and women ac-
Mr. Kelly' s discussion of black family life and
counted for less than 40 percent of the total,
while groups of only one sex made up about a
third of the total. Such sexual imbalances
slave holdings. All the latter comes from analysis of inventories and takes into account the
shortcomings Mr. Gill points out.
within the slave population meant that many
In future issues we' ll feature in the Setting
the
which dis-
black men and women, if they married at all,
Record Straight column other docu-
were forced to live apart from their spouses.
ments — from diaries to pipe stems, from
The black population finally overcame this
obstacle and succeeded in growing naturally
court orders to engravings. Please tell us the
types of evidence you' re curious about. We' ll
by the 1780s. This fact, also drawn from the
inventories, is clear evidence of successful
search out the appropriate experts for their
family formation. It came about slowly, and
explanations of the records and then give ex-
amples of the records' uses. If there are re-
search projects you' ve heard about only in
J
that points out an important aspect of black
life locally. A strong family offered compensa-
passing and want more information on, we' d
like to know that too. Feel free to call extension 2274 or send a note to the research depart-
tion against the hardships of slavery. Yet
blacks living in York County had to struggle
throughout the colonial period to establish
this basic human support.
ment.
ii i
�Association on the promoters and early resi-
Update, continued
Historians who have tried soon find it neces-
dents of Yorktown, a paper that is summarized
sary
elsewhere
to
reconstruct
whole
communities,
county by county, name by name, year by
in
this
supplement.
Once
the
founding fathers have been identified, it fol-
year. The procedures we follow in abstracting
the York County records, linking the names
we find recorded there, compiling biographies, and coding each file for computer anal-
lows logically to ask how the towns grew after-
wards. We know that many of the early residents were not country folk come to town, but
new immigrants to the colony. As our research
ysis were described in the summer 1979 issue
moves further into the eighteenth century, we
of Colonial Williamsburg Today. The time has
should be able to tell if a distinctively urban
come to explain how we will use this store-
social order emerged after a generation or two.
house of information to explore questions of
We will also be seeking answers to questions
social change in a case study of Williamsburg,
Yorktown, and rural York County.
about the variety of goods and services pro-
vided by the towns and whether they were
major markets for surrounding farms. We expect that they were, but we have yet to de-
The computerized data bank will eventu-
ally contain the names of tens of thousands of
planters, merchants, craftsmen, doctors, innkeepers, slaves, masters, women, children,
termine how the demand that towns created
aunts, and uncles whose affairs for one reason
may have altered the region' s agricultural
economy and how that regional market may
or another came to the attention of the county
have influenced trade with England.
court. This reconstituted " telephone book"
The period after 1780, when the capital had
has already been much consulted to find rep-
been moved to Richmond, gives us a chance
resentative historical characters for the sum-
to test the conclusions we have reached about
the earlier period. The comparison will show
mer acting program. Notwithstanding this and
other immediately useful applications, an or-
us what aspects of the town' s economy and
occupational structure had not been depen-
dered list of names is only a first step towards
understanding something more important.
Williamsburg and Yorktown, being unusu-
dent on the business of government.
ally
towns, were anomalies in eighteenth century
standing and interpretation of eighteenthcentury Williamsburg. By extension they are
Virginia. Historians are eager to learn what
also questions that examine the subtle trans-
successful,
unusually
early
These are questions basic to our under-
tidewater
special circumstances led to their founding
and_ their_subsequent growth and develop-
formations by which Virginians came to think
of themselves as Americans. Future Fresh
vices will report on later developments from
ment. They also want to know how they influenced the lives and fortunes of nearby far-
eighteenth- century York County and other
mers and planters. Clearly such issues are of
major research projects as well. Sometimes
central importance to those of us who must
interpret Wolstenholme Town, Martin' s
your reporter will be a historian, other times a
Hundred, Carter' s Grove, the eighteenth -
curator, architectural historian, or archaeologist. Each issue will include a column de-
century capital, and the town that was left
voted to eighteenth -century documents and
behind when the state govemment moved to
the kinds of useful information historians find
Richmond. We need to know who settled on _
in them. Harold Gill begins that series in this
this peninsula in the seventeenth century.
issue with an essay on probate inventories,
When the best farm land was filled up, di-
whose use Kevin Kelly illustrates in another
article on slave holding in York County.
minished opportunities for indentured ser-
vants may have resulted in the early importation of slaves, and that may have contributed
to the ascendancy of those families who already owned land. We know that the staple
The Virginia Gazette was fond of saying that
it was " open to All Parties, but influenced by
None." That goes for us too. Watch for future
Fresh Advices.
crop was top grade, sweet scented tobacco.
An occasional supplement to The Intetpraer newsletter,
Fresh Advice: is the coordinated effort of Colonial
Conceivably, its consistently high price con-
Williamsburg's research departments.
centrated wealth on this peninsula, thereby
Editor: Lou Powers
attracting larger numbers of merchants whose
Assistant Editors: Harold Gill and Shomer Zwelling
presence may explain why early attempts to
establish towns here were successful.
Editorial Board: Barbara Beaman, Cary Carson, George
Collins, Dennis O'Toole, Jim Robley, Jane Strauss,
and Bill Tramposch
Kevin Kelly and Peter Bergstrom recently
Consultants: Peter Bergstrom and Kevin Kelly.
presented a paper to the Southem Historical
iv
D
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fresh advices, January, 1981
Description
An account of the resource
Update from the Director of Research -- New Towns, 1690-1720 -- Setting the Record Straight: Estate Inventories -- Black Family Life
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/0d9514bf9661c121b17431c67660671f.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=eVCqrDwRNvyEoZI9xR0ifyQDZP7qUD8gSBl9fG9iBIOXO0G74LLjRamp3Uq8zV-DJ513WdJO8-Bo6PTSdH7IjXX%7ESvSaHCle810afcy-Ad3NFc4CXcyvJ0qzShQXgzxqMxQK7SWfiInjdBqwaRzLc0XRwS0Zz3uCWA1HW5SzfjjXOvycAjA7Iijdo0ROwJBUdR890b7IltxBjOITDpf6k74SPgBj3fn-JIeg4XV3vl1utpfDIoy1Aie3hgTzqrjo9S4SaUaiGFJpO5hwLURzdQFxw72Q61x8LY2WaOwI1Umc6dbmJ4ZFT1vTKojpPxs35JaP356VsIvuSpWVzyrhFA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
1dfc6e563881104b2fcef153f205be47
PDF Text
Text
It
Lola
111•, 0
A
CULTURAL TIME LINE
M` •
F
GLOSSARY
a.
for
Williamsburg in the Eighteenth
Century
1
l
w/
L
i
t'
4tomztz`.
Ill
1. _
•
v
4".
lut'
taT
4V7VJ. T ,
1!
1\/
Y.
0711. .•
L. •
4 -
1 *. . .
aY
1\\
t\ .
J,
r, . ,• .
r,
A Special Publication of
ti
THE COLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG
interpreter
1••
�INTRODUCTION
This time line
and
are
glossary
the result of
over
of
a year
categorizing, researching,
information about hundreds of people, dates, and events.
writing, editing, and proofing
fundamental question, however, of deciding just what and / or who
These steps belie the
be included in the first
should
is
appropriate
include in
it
upon
for
line
a time
your
and what must
to decide
ourselves
Just
place.
in
our visitors
be left
entries
which
information
constantly judging what
decide what information
as you are
interpretation,
so must we
As if
off.
that wasn' t
to expound
upon
bad
to
then took
enough, we
in this glossary. To include a
to that item. To expand
the time line naturally
worth than an entry that was not selected.
glossary implies that it is of greater
have tried to do is to represent a full range of cultural, political, scientific, and
What we
seventeenth and the
aesthetic activity that occurred in America and Europe in the late
ascribes a worth, or value,
person or event on
on
that
item in
a
centuries
eighteenth
identify
and
influenced the development
But it is
that
they
not
were
the
the function of a
and
events
Virginia society.
time line to assign relative
included in the first
Entries
place.
It is up
a personage or occurrence.
people
that either
directly
or
indirectly
of colonial
to the
are
reader
beyond
to entries
values
two -dimensional " flags"
to
delve into
the
fact
acknowledging
the subject to understand
Space prohibited including
or herself the importance of the entry.
in this glossary. Those chosen tended to be items not of the first rank of common knowledge
but of sufficient interest to be expanded upon. Thus Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin,
The Battle of
not included.
or the Battle of Yorktown, icons in American history, are
ramifications of its
Culloden, though known by many, is included in order to explain the
establishment of an Indian school in Brunswick County
outcome. This is
why you will see the
beside the development of the Newcomen pump and why the
appearing on the time line
Samuel Davies commands as much space in the glossary as John Locke,
relatively obscure
all
for himself
Benjamin West,
As
your
with
any
curiosity
as well
Enlightenment
quence with
with
Glorious Revolution.
the
and
good
interpretation, this time line
as
to provide you
Every
unfolded.
those of a more
that of a world
view.
All
in CAPITAL LETTERS. Items
by
an
entries
effort
local
has been
nature
in
entries on the
that were
and
a graphic
with
made
order
time
chosen
to
its glossary
to
balance
to parallel
line
were prepared
representation
that
of global
events
Williamsburg' s
occurred
be included in
the
to
pique
how the Age
of
in the
of
conse-
development
colonies appear
glossary
are
designated
asterisk ( *).
For every entry and glossary item that is included in this publication two were left out.
No doubt you will notice an omission or two that warrants future consideration. Please bring
edition.
these to my attention and I will see to it that they are considered for inclusion in a later
listed in the back of this booklet. They are
But for now I call to your attention the people
for the development of this remarkable publication and have created an
responsible
excellent
framework for graphically presenting
on Williamsburg. I hope that you
its influence
the scope of the
will
be
that you are spurred on to learn
way in your interpretation,
to Williamsburg, or that you are simply
and its
relationship
developments that
were
occurring throughout
for presenting only
Age
able to use
of
more
made
Enlightenment
and
information in
some
about a particular
entry
this
more
aware
of parallel
this period.
the tip of the iceberg. A glossary can only
Like any good interpretation they are both at their
go so far in deepening understanding.
beyond
provoke the reader to learn more, so I hope you are inspired to go
best when
A
time
line is
notorious
they
the information
presented
here.
Happy
cross
referencing!
The
1
editor
�The
Williamsburg
publication
of
Department
of
Time Line
and
Glossary
interpreter
and
is
the
is
a special
published
by
Interpretive Education.
Editor: Mark Howell
Assistant Editor: Emma L. Powers
Project Coordinator:
Mary
Jamerson
Project Committee: Liza Gusler, Linda Rowe
Editorial Board: Dennis O' Toole, Earl L. Soles,
and
Jane Strauss
1990
by
The Colonial
Williamsburg
2749
ISSN 0883 -
2
Foundation
the
�The
Glossary
Adam was one of
Adam, Robert ( 1728 -1792), English architect and furniture designer.
Robert went to Italy in 1754 and ten years later
four sons of architect William Adam.
Much of his subsequent work reflected the
published The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian.
1773 Robert and his brother James began publishing Works
influence of these studies. In
instrumental
which contained the designs of many of their works and
He believed that the smallest detail of
in popularizing the Adam style of ornament.
designs for
decoration and furnishing was within the field of the architect. He illustrated
Hepplewhite* and Sheraton*
and articles of silver.
furniture, carpets, lamps, andirons,
prevailed
derived much from the work of Adam, whose influence on the decorative arts
was
In Architecture,
from
around
With the
in
style
the
the
part of
1760
Lord Botetourt in
of
decorative
decor
his death in 1792.
until
arrival
of
Palace
the
and
eventually
b
Arne, Thomas A. ( 1710- 1778), English - orn
his
to
contribution
in October 1768,
Williamsburg
introduced to Virginia. The ideas
arts was
of
homes
the
of
the
and style of
the
neoclassical
Adam became
gentry.
He is particularly well known for
century. In 1740 he produced
composer.
theater music of the eighteenth
English
a
masque Alfred with the song " Rule Britannia" that became
very popular patriotic song
Arne' s ballad opera Love in a Village was produced successfully in
in Great Britain.
published in collections of songs sold
Williamsburg in 1771, and the music from it was
Robert Carter ordered music from Love in a Village only four years after its American
here.
the
premiere
Charleston
at
and
a year
almost
before its first
Williamsburg
performance.
b
1816) , English - orn Methodist leader. " Methodism" was named for
Francis ( 1745 disciplined religious group of Oxford students led by John and Charles Wesley *.
strictly
John Wesley in 1771, Asbury was the prototype circuit rider, traveling
Sent to America
Asbury,
a
by
five
to
thousand
six
thousand
horseback
on
year
a
miles
Asbury
sermons.
in
preached
and
Williamsburg
estimated
an
preaching
twenty
including
occasions
several
on
in his journal that ` worldly glory is departed [ from
Williamsburg] — divine glory it never had any."
American Methodists formally separated from the Episcopal Church in 1784 at a
The influence of
was consecrated
which
conference in Baltimore
December 1782
when
he
recorded
dissenting
and
equality in
framers
and
of church
separation
and
tal
the
religions on
the sight of
of the constitution went
The
state.
God
bishop.
Asbury
during
the
concept
evangelical
was significant
in
the
beyond
of
religious
tolerance
individual responsibility
development
of
this
new governmen-
system.
Bach, Johann
1782),
Christian ( 1735 -
Johann Sebastian, he
to the queen, and
that
impressed
music
old
at
the
young
The
time).
important influence
1714 1788)
We
think
in 1764 he
public
concerts
visitor
a
on
composer
and
performer.
England in 1762. In London he
to
beginning
regular
established
years
came
London,
to
style
Mozart, just
K. F. Abel
and
Wolfgang
composed
of music
performed
That
in London.
by
as that composed
The
youngest
son
of
was appointed music master
same
in
year
a series of concerts
Johann Christian'
Amadeus Mozart (
who
was
s
eight
C. Bach would become an
his brother Carl Philipp Emanuel
by J.
to be a primary influence on Haydn.
Johann Sebastian ( 1685- 1750) as the famous Bach, but the name in
Europe and in the colonies would have suggested his sons, who
was
of
eenth-
century
composing in
eightwere
harpredominantly melody supported by
old-fashioned" polyphonic style of counterpoint used by
mony). Only much later did the "
C. and C. P. E. Bach, and not J. S.
their father become so well known. It was the music of
the
monophonic
new
styles (
J.
Bach, that the Jeffersons
J.
C. Bach is
at a concert at
Apparently
and
other
Virginia families
owned.
role in
popularizing the piano (
Tavern in London he played a " Solo
Thatched House
also
important for his
this was the
London. The first
first
time that the
concert on
the
pianoforte).
piano was
pianoforte
in
publicly
on
the
used as a solo
Williamsburg
was
in 1771
In 1768
Pianoforte."
instrument in
at
the Raleigh
Tavern.
3
NM M'IW1 •.•
or. Mlle
�Bacon' s Rebellion ( 1676)
became
and
marked
by
dispatching
than
only
by
land
of
Governor
by
alarmed
not
use
exploitive
Indian threat
the
reflection
a
the
of
Berkeley'
labor for
leadership
s poor
rate
character
but
tragic Indian
by
also
Many
Virginians
in
and weak response
forts be built along
handling
frontier
the
of
1607, the
Jamestown in
of
tobacco production.
a series of
merely suggesting
death
devastating
a
and
destructive
and
unstable
settlement
seventeenth -
colony had been
relations
was
century society. From the
Virginia' s
rather
troops.
In the spring of 1676 Nathaniel Bacon, a member of England' s gentry newly arrived in
Virginia, became the military leader of a band of Virginians who armed themselves against
the Indians in defiance of the governor.
Berkeley responded by unsuccessfully dispatchmen to confront Bacon and declared him a rebel.
ing
Until Bacon' s death from
struggled
to
After
Assembly
the
loyal troops to
later
Eastern Shore
to
continued
his authority and was forced to
Jamestown to prepare for Bacon' s
Bacon burned
while
Gloucester
and
in
vacillate
Bacon' s
confusion.
The
their
County and
in January
support
however,
men,
Berkeley
however,
to the Eastern
retreat
but
attack
Berkeley
war.
Bacon in
and
Shore.
Berkeley
one another,
increasing
the
ever -
plundering loyalist plantations in
death left his men without a strong
sudden
to power and sought reparations
returned
to the
return
fight
to
Indians.
the
could not raise
forced to
was
men
to
turned
Bacon' s
elsewhere.
1677
of
now
governor,
Virginians, hesitant
the capital.
fight
the power to
Berkeley
withdrawn.
assert
returned to
leader,
many
demanded from
June 25 but later
was granted on
Berkeley
politically, embroiling Virginians in civil
Bacon' s demands, Bacon with five hundred
of
enacted
Governor
and
and
the government and
captured
That
October 26, 1676 he
natural causes on
Virginia militarily
control
for the
loyalists.
During
the
of
number
Rebellion
becoming
land
more
Rebellion the Indians probably suffered
Virginia
destroyed.
villages were
free
indentured
to
servants
changed
same
and white
slaves
men
time the
united
and a
Bacon' s
after
farther
labor force
as racism
killed
were
character
population was pushed
At the
white men.
black
Indian
the
more stable as
available to
Many
the most.
their
west
making
from
shifted
developed
white
to protect
the master class.
which opened in London in 1728, was an overwhelming theatrical
for 32 consecutive nights. The work heralded a new form of musical
running
drama —the ballad opera. Unlike the prevalent Italian opera with its formal arias, librettist
John
and musical arranger John Pepusch set the story of Macheath and Polly to
Beggar' s Opera, The,
success,
Gay
popular form of
contemporary ballads. The ballad opera was to become a very
Hundreds were written during the
both in England and the colonies.
popular
entertainment
eighteenth
Gay' s
century.
opera
political
also
was
self interest
-
a
and
apparent.
are
double
and
political
standards
the
satire
in
which
the
aristocracy imposed
questions
on
the
No doubt many in the audiences read allusions to the
Whig leader Robert Walpole in none too favorable
readily
ministry into the play, casting
Gay' s subsequent ballad opera,
society
social
scathing
the
Polly,
was
rest
of
of
current
a
light.
suppressed.
its first American performance in New York in 1751. It is
possible that the Hallam troupe staged it in Williamsburg as early as 1752, but the first
known performance was in 1769 under the musical direction of Peter Pelham.*
The Beggar' s Opera
received
1800),
Billings, William ( 1746 tanner
by
trade, wrote
was one of
known
as
a
the first to
hymn
hymns
American
compose
and a
formed in
earliest
black
formed
the
by
truly American
marching
Williamsburg
black leaders
first
preachers —
meeting in secret
household as early
in
Boston,
Billings,
fuguing
Black Baptist Church, early black
separate black church in Virginia
tion
Born
composer.
and anthems and was a popularizer of "
tune
during
congregation
or
Billings' s song " Chester"
the Revolutionary War.
music.
in
in America,
area
Williamsburg.
the
apparent
or
assistance
hide
He
was well
not the
African American Baptist
in the late 1770s
without
Although
a
tunes."
first
congrega-
early 1780s was probably the
from white preachers. Two
began preaching to " people of color"
Moses, then Gowan Pamphlet —
Gowan was a slave in Jane Vobe' s
the outskirts of Williamsburg.
on
as
1783,
and
it is
likely
that
4
Moses
was also a slave.
They
both
endured
�of their preaching activities.
congregabut Gowan Pamphlet continued ministering to the
Moses' fate is
regional ( white)
gained
membership in the
tion. In 1793, Pamphlet, by then a free man,
ranged as high
Dover Baptist Association for his African American church. Membership
1818 Jesse Cole of Williamsburg had given a
years.
By
as five to seven hundred in some
The church continued to flourish,
house on Nassau Street for their use.
carriage
events in the 1830s and 1840s
minimal interference from whites, until
apparently with
1855 the carriage house was replaced
brought reorganization under white ministers. In
as
punishment
physical
a
result
unknown,
by
a
brick
that was used
church
1955.
until
1743), Virginia clergyman and founder of the College
Blair, The Reverend James ( 1655 of the
He was born in Banffshire, Scotland, one of five children
of William and Mary.
minister
Blair. Educated at Marischal and Edinburgh, he was ordained a
Reverend Robert
of
of
the Church
James II (
Scotland in 1679. That
of
him to Virginia
Scottish
of
required
There he became
ministers)
to serve
an
as
Anglican
Blair quickly allied himself with
1687 he married Sarah Harrison
history
when
she
Blair became
and
and
the
of
London,
to the test
go to
oath
England.
in 1685
who
sent
to
vows.
obey in her wedding
of London in 1690, founder
Bishop
in 1693 ( a position he held for fifty
to the
representative)
Mary
Virginia Council in 1694 (
a position
Much
1710.
Bruton Parish Church in
of
subscribe
City County.
promise
the College of William and
member of
rector
to
Bishop
to
invitation to
in Henrico Parish. Arriving in Virginia,
In
most influential families in the colony.
Sarah wrote her own chapter in
the
Charles
refused
Commissary (
of
president
years),
repeatedly
of
an
minister
of
some
refused
and accepted
Compton,
Henry
acquainted with
he
same year
he held for forty nine
was involved in
years),
power
his life
of
Nicholson,
recall of three governors ( Andros,
struggles and historians credit him with the
preacher and writer with a down leader Blair was a strong
and Spotswood). As a religious
The Foundation Library owns early
to-earth moralistic, disciplined approach to living.
the Mount.
five volumes of sermons: Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on
copies of his
dukes of Marlborough and
Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire, the ancestral home of the
Churchill. It is the only private house in England to be officially
birthplace of Sir Winston
residences of
royalty and bishops.
a name usually reserved for the
called a " Palace,"
William Churchill, first duke of
Blenheim was the gift of a grateful nation to war hero
Battle of Blenheim ( 1704)
Marlborough, for his outstanding victory over the French at the
Queen Anne gave the duke her royal manor at
of Spanish Succession.
during the War
Woodstock as a site for its construction.
1705. He was assisted by his
John Vanbrugh was the architect and construction began in
Vanbrugh and
Hawksmoor, chief assistant of Christopher Wren.*
close friend Nicholas
had previously done on Castle Howard,
collaborated on Blenheim as
they
Hawksmoor
Yorkshire.
acres.
It is in the baroque
include
other
the
Blenheim Palace is
a vast
formal
of
construction
the Palace
Richard
thousand pound
governor (
lence
months
Hayward
figure
college purchased
Lord Botetourt
is
to
after
was
arrived
it in 1797.
enjoyed
still
in
in
with
Williamsburg.
Norborne
Berkeley,
his death
this "
fitting
covering seven
hero. The gardens
and courts
tribute to a
an immense park surrounding the
basis for Alexander Spotswood' s design for
front
best
and
is
Baron de Botetourt. The
tangible
evidence
of governors and the
commissioned
Williamsburg
It is
a special
1770), he
1768 -
which
gardens
Virginians felt for
and appreciation
sculptor
the south
memorial
nine
commissioned
heavy
at
its buildings
and powerful, a
type of garden was the
Botetourt Statue ( 1773),
was
style,
parterre
This
three sides.
a massive structure,
appropriate
to
create
and was erected
best
statue.
English
of men."
In
1773
in the Capitol
that
institution.
relationship
the Botetourt Medal,
an
During
award
for
statue
affection
the
piazza.
that the statue stand at the college
with
sponsored
the
of the
his
two
The
because
tenure as
academic
excel-
presented.
He separated chemistry from
1691) , father of modern chemistry.
Boyle, Robert ( 1627 chemical element, a chemical reaction,
and gave the first precise definitions of a
alchemy
An important law describing certain characteristics of natural gases
and chemical analysis.
bears his
name.
5
11••
11IIIMPO .
N
•
. rglr
�the bulk of his
James Blair* was in London when Boyle died in December 1691, leaving
Blair secured funds from
distributed for pious and charitable purposes.
estate to be
College of
that housed the Indian school at the
Boyle' s executor for the Brafferton*
in Yorkshire, purchased as an
William and Mary. Annual rents from Brafferton Manor
Revolution.
investment for Boyle' s estate, supported the Indian school until the
school.
It was named
Brafferton, The ( 1723), the College of William and Mary' s Indian
been purchased by Sir Robert Boyle' s*
after the Brafferton estates in Yorkshire that had
provide funds from the estate to
out one of the physicist' s bequests — to
to
carry
executors
Indian
educate
tribes as
The
missionaries.
Indian
a single
in Christian
youths
boy
that
they
in
that
no record
With
that
to their
return
eventually
there is
and
capacity.
funds from England, the Indian
tribe and served
the American Revolution and the cut off of
might
failure,"
school was called a " noble
back to his
went
so
religion
the onset of
school ceased
function.
to
1774),
School ( 1760 -
Bray
established on
Associates
colonial
Williamsburg
the
organized
the school closed.
from
Most
were
ten.
Masters
There
to eight
the
It
free.
and
slave
group known
to
attempt
Dr.
as
was
Bray' s
slaves
the
christianize
and
in
were about
in
only
thirty
the
students at
few
although a
most
were
as
the
of
of
its
school at
young
time.
given
any
as three or as old as
school represented a cross section of
the
years
Upon her death
teacher at the school.
local
political
keepers.
tavern
Dr.
the
during
trustee
school' s
was
years old,
who enrolled slaves
Reverend
English
1730),
Thomas ( 1656 -
born
clergymen,
Marton,
in
behind
Oxford. He
Anglican missionary and philanthropic organizations in England,
of
for Promoting Christian Knowledge ( 1698), the Society for the Propagation
1723, reorganized in
of Dr.
Foreign Parts ( 1701) , and the Associates
Shropshire,
was the
and educated at
the formation
the
six
craftsmen,
The
Bray,
as
served
Likewise, Mrs. Anne Wager
operation.
leaders,
children,
philanthropic
North America.
Robert Carter Nicholas
in 1774,
for black
instructional
an
as
school
school
The English
September 29, 1760.
Society
founder
the
of and
prime mover
of three
Bray (
to be
Henry Compton, Bishop of London, selected Bray
in Maryland. Bray returned to England after securing an act establishing
commissary
Church of England in Maryland in May 1702.
the
Gospel in
In
1729).
fall
the
1695,
of
his
the
S. P. C.K. included supplying the colonies with missionaries, providing
schools in
and clergy in England, and establishing charity
libraries for
England. When Bray returned home from America, he obtained a charter for a missionary
plantations.
over responsibility for sending missionaries to
society, the S. P. G., to take
Conversion
educational endeavors in England.
Thereafter, the S. P.C. K. devoted itself to
Goals
the
of
missionaries
of
Indians
blacks in America did
and
form
take institutional
Associates
It
death.
the
this
was
organization
He began his
ca.
as
career
Vanbrugh
and
profitable career on
have high priority in the S. P. G. and was not to
the Associates of Dr. Bray in 1723. The
not
establishment of
continued their efforts to
Bridgeman, Charles (
under
until
instruct
Bray
School* in
1738), English gardener, surveyor,
1680 an apprentice to George London* and
own
and
after
Dr.
Bray' s
Williamsburg.
landscape
Henry
Wise
architect.
and
worked
Bridgeman began a
Blenheim Palace.*
building
in 1713 with the design of a vast formal garden at Stowe for
Wise in the
his
in America
and convert slaves
that established the
of
Lord Cobham.
Bridgeman
1682- 1745),
forest"
timber
garden
It
designs
of
Bridgeman'
to enclose
with
innovators
a
new
by long
was characterized
at
apprentice
of
in England
of their predecessors, who
the
topography
s greatest
his
inventing
at that time.
enclosure
Nursery,
style
of
Stephen Switzer
gardening
called
grand avenues and extensive plantings of
This
forced
intended to
the
forest
ease and replace the critical
new approach
was
a
departure from
their formal, bilateral
the
on
a site
or sunken
fence
geometry
vegetation.
innovation
gardens rather
this
or
Brompton
transitional
avenues were called " rides" and were
shortage
regardless
the
were
style.
These
trees.
his former fellow
and
was
popularizing the
than a tall brick
method
use of
or stone wall.
in his design for the
6
the "
fosse"
Though Walpole
garden
at
credits
him
Stowe in 1713, the
�fosse,
royal
h
ha - a,
or
George II,
to
gardener
figure in
notable
both he
documented in France
was
the
Switzer do
and
he held
post
a
from formal
transition
Charles Bridgeman was a
in English gardening, but
imaginative enough to take
styles
natural
to
or
ideas further.
their
English
Capability" ( 1715 -1783),
family of yeoman farmers in
Brown, Lancelot "
was
as
his death.
have been forceful
to
not appear
In 1728 Bridgeman became
1709.
early
until
as
born
to a
he learned
basic
the
all
landscape
improvement,
of
estate
at
practicalities
Benwell
He
architect.
In 1732 Lancelot left
While
Kirkharle Hall for Sir William Loraine.
start work at
to
sixteen
at age
school
and
gardener
Northumberland in 1715.
including
there
garden
some
management.
After working
be
to
and
Brown designed
his
by
they
gentry
intensive and
labor The
garden' s
Brown
his
to
He
would
his
works
to
a more " natural"
Above
maintain.
be
set
simpler and
from
viewed
all,
the
looking
the house
house,
became
laid
out
gave
the
than those
topiary. Brown
landscape that
the
and
barer
country house
his own.
on
practice
far less
important in the
all
house
was
was also
to
be
the
feature.
was nicknamed "
the
clients
he
garden
chief
to
their own
up in
the parterre, ornaments, and
earnestly desired,
cheaper
of
them with
and
landscape
the
Brown
estates,
He
Lord Cobham, in 1741.
Cobham soon willingly lent Brown
that
assist
In 1751 he left Stowe
abolished
was
and
advise
gardens that made
so
what
to
Hall
Kiddington
and
Stowe, home
at
gardener
acquaintances
predecessors.
garden.
head
developments.
and garden
gardener
a
so able an administrator and overseer
his friends
to
as
the position of
assumed
proved
briefly
latent
because he
Capability"
fond
was
of
using
that term
in
describing
potentials of their estates — `There are great capabilities
say. His obituary notice in 1783
will be mistaken" for it.
So closely did he copy
concluded: "
1815) , first Roman Catholic
Carroll, Father John ( 1735 Georgetown College in
He
1789.
was
member
a
of
bishop
in America
Maryland
a
family
here, Sir!"
that
nature
founder
and
held
that
of
great
were
century. Although the Carrolls
Catholic, they influenced an overwhelmingly hostile Anglican colony in Maryland. This
included Charles Carroll of Carrollton, a signer of the Declaration of
great
political and economic
power
during
the
eighteenth
family
Independence,
and
Daniel Carroll,
John Carroll
was
educated
staffed
had
of
by
the
to pursue a
resolved
his
Jesuit Order in
a
signer
Jesuit
by
family he set sail for
by 1765. He spent
Flanders
where
the next eight
in Maryland, Pennsylvania,
miliating
presence of a
States
bishop.
first
and
Vatican
Without
government,
problem
legislation
bishop. By
the
and
a
hiring
bishop
of
Baltimore
in the Jesuit community. With
he entered a Jesuit seminary and
years
remained
bishop,
and
firing
bishop
teaching
population of
New York.
the
fulfilling
less
than
his
fifty
Carroll
blessings
was ordained
ministerial
roles
thousand still was
The Revolution had
removed
the
hu-
the growing Catholic community needed a native
Catholic parishes practiced their own form of church
priests
at
will.
it became known.
proclaimed
until
and
and
plantation
was sixteen,
that
his American flock.
was
famous
a
he
1790 many
realized
as
By
the time
Catholics, but the community was not unified by the
Catholics had immigrated from Europe to the United
upon
some
of trusteeism,
Constitution.
Bohemian Manor,
Maryland.
northeastern
in Europe before returning to America.
After the Revolutionary War the Catholic
penal
the
at
religious vocation
a priest
centered
of
priests
as
Carroll
In 1790, Carroll
the
as
Pope Pius VI
mother
see
superior
requested
bishop
was consecrated as
of
the
diocese
not
stop the
Carroll become
could
that
of
in England
America.
Carroll
his death in 1815.
1823), English inventor.
Cartwright, The Reverend Edmund ( 1743 had several inventions to his credit and in 1785 designed the first
By
1780 Cartwright
power
loom.
New
quantities of loomable
carding and spinning had resulted in large
thread, but the hand looms of the period could not keep pace with these new machines.
Cartwright had never seen a loom in operation and knew nothing about weaving when he
It worked with a vertical warp and a spring operated
patented his first loom in 1785.
The loom did weave cloth but not very well.
mechanism and took two men to operate.
condescended
to see how other people wove" and redesigned his
Cartwright
mechanical
means
of
finally "
7
1• 0r1111111rrs - ...
a
�A
machine.
loom
second
in 1786
was patented
and a third
in 1787.
however, they did contain basic
very successful;
looms. Power for Cartwright' s looms was originally supplied by
He went on to develop
1789.
steam engines for power by
elements
and not
eventually became
on
and
her
He
specimens.
trip
was
using
and
machines
of Carolina,
Elizabeth
History
his
with
sister
join her husband, Dr. William Cocke.
to
years
seven
England
but he
additional
Virginia in 1712
to
came
Williamsburg
when
he
to
enough
illustrating
and
collecting
long
1726,
1722 -
to the colonies,
procure
collected
history
natural
financial
for
sponsors
information to finish his
a
natural
publication.
Back in England,
tively
to
returned
animals
The Natural
of
author
and
He first
in Virginia for
remained
history
illustrator
from London to
future
were used on
in Doncaster.
of a mill
the Bahama Islands.
voyage
Catesby
second
owner
1749),
Mark ( 1679 -
Catesby,
Florida,
the
still complex
They were
that
found that
Catesby
therefore,
expensive;
as
he
hiring
an
engraver
in the
explained
for his drawings
of
preface
his two
was
volume
prohibi-
he
work,
prints in The Natural History, Catesby
engraving himself. Of the 220
The prints beautifully illustrate plants, birds, fish, insects, snakes,
engraved all but two.
both English and French.
and other forms of natural life and are accompanied by text in
learned the
process of
Derbyshire,
Chatsworth ( 1687- 1707),
badly
in
Devonshire.
The
by
was occupied
when
repair
of
need
1553
of
original structure
earl was a
home
ancestral
both
1684
inherited in
leader in the
of
during
by William
movement
He
England.
was made
and marquis of
of
England
What
and
started
high
baroque
a
inviting
William
of
of
earl
Orange to
of
duke
the
rule
Devonshire
in the Union
act was to assist
a
as
out
lift for
face -
decaying
a
in
structure
The
period.
twenty-
seen
in
the
architect
was
resulted
original
the reconstruction of the south and east
William III. The
typical of the reign of
structure
Elizabethan
year
a
gardens still
faces.
include formal
series of
and enormous waterworks such as a great cascade with a
parterres
and was
Scotland in 1707.
rebuilding of the entire house
William Talman, whose work can be
a
Civil War
Cavendish, fourth
court and was created
public
The
Devonshire.
Catholic James II from
to exclude
The duke' s last
Hartington in 1694.
over
It is
the new
of
the English
throne and was one of the seven signers of the petition
steward of
dukes
the
sides
fountains
and
waterfall.
1779), English cabinetmaker. He was born in Worcester,
Chippendale, Thomas, Sr. ( 1718 He moved to London in 1727 where he opened
son of a cabinetmaker and wood carver.
first
James Rannie. The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director was
his own shop in 1749 with
The Director
year and a third edition in 1762.
published in 1754 with a reprint the following
designs in the French rococo, Chinese, and
contained 160 engraved plates of furniture
gothic
style
styles;
it, Chippendale became
through
in England.
Haig joined Chippendale
Thomas
after
a
leading
the death of
force in popularizing
the rococo
1822)
Rannie. Thomas, Jr. ( 1749 a large and successful business
Chippendale' s cabinetmaking
under Robert Adam' s*
included furnishings for Nostell Priory and Harewood House (
survive
attributed to Thomas Chippendale, Sr.,
today.
pieces
Few
direction).
directly
operation,
also worked with
that
Upon the restoEnglish laws repressing nonconformists.
England in 1660, Parliament returned the Church of
in the years
established church, a preeminence it had enjoyed
Clarendon Code ( 1661- 1665),
ration
of
Charles II
England to the
before
the
their
as
softened
national
The
all
of
then enacted a series of
chief minister
objective
places
and
Code
political
them
life,
was
the
exclusion
in
and
earl
administration,
of
as the
trust.
These
by
the
statutes
both Protestant
Though unevenly
both Charles II
nonconformists
and
Clarendon Code,
Clarendon.
nonconformists,
proclaimed
keeping
enforced
and
and
and
James II,
from participating
universities,
and
largely
in
pre-
from establishing their own schools.
s throne and brought in
chased the Catholic James II from England'
strife would imperil
were convinced that further religious
in his place
grandees who
William
of
of public
Indulgence
successful
municipal
harsh laws known
Sir Edward Hyde,
positions
through Declarations of
Clarendon
vented
It
principal
Catholic, from
the
position
Civil War.
for Charles' s
named
had
to the throne of
Mary
8
�Thus in
nation.
their
dissenters
were
1689 Parliament
May
the
granted
of
right
free
worship,
Protestant
Toleration Act.*
the
enacted
public
which
denied
they had been
decades to
But they remained excluded from public life for
dissenters
establishment and the exclusion of
It was this model of Anglican Church
come.
framed Virginia' s political and religious life until after
and Catholics from public life that
under
the
Clarendon Code.
Revolution.
the
Copley,
John Singleton ( 1738- 1815),
born American
Boston -
Peter Pelham, Sr.,
painter.
jailor, Peter Pelham *, married Copley' s mother in
father of Williamsburg
When he was nineteen Copley
mezzotint scraper.
and taught his stepson the trade of
1748
of his half to produce portraits, but it was his painting
was regularly commissioned
him notice in London.
brother, Henry Pelham, that brought
While in Italy the
to study.
In 1774 Copley went to England and the Continent
remainder of his life with his
the
Revolution broke out and, like Benjamin West *, he lived
encouragement from painters like
in England. Copley was self taught and received
family
paintings.
West. He is famous for both his portraits and historical
and
organist
Culloden, Battle
of (
1746) , final defeat
of the
Stuarts in their bid to
James II
throne. Supporters of the deposed English king
Known
Glorious Revolution of 1688.*
years after the
maintained
succession (
these
throne
plots
regain
the
were active
Jacobites ( from
the
English
for many
Latin for
rebellion
in
culminated
were
rebels
peacefully.
Open Jacobite
and
as
his heirs
English politicians also
Irish.
mostly Scottish and
Edward Stuart, until the Hanoverian
contact with James and his son, James
could return to the
George I) in 1714 ended any possibility that the Stuart line
James, Jacobus),
English
and
a
risings
1716 ( known as the Fifteen) failed. Subsequent
in 1715 1746 ( known as the Forty-Five) by " Bonnie
final effort in 1745 Pretender — and the Jacobites to
Edward Stuart, the
Young
Prince Charlie" — Charles
retake the throne of England.
Charles' s highland army was crushed by the English in a
Moor near Inverness, Scotland, on April 16, 1746.
short but decisive battle at Culloden
in 1807 without heirs.
The last of the Stuart line died
Great
1761), Virginia leader of the religious revival known as the
Davies, Samuel ( 1723 the
new light" minister to settle permanently in
Awakening. He was the first " new side" or "
continued at the school
school at Chester, Pennsylvania. He
Davies attended a
colony.
Hanover County, an act that later
because of donations from Presbyterian dissenters in
that congregation.
Feeling
influenced his decision to accept permanent appointment to
to all who would listen, Davies brought
it his duty to teach the principles of Christianity
purchased
spelling books,
that congregation, taught them to read, and
many slaves into
was named President
left Hanover when he
hymnals for their use. Davies and
catechisms,
of
Princeton
University
in 1759,
a
post
Davies
was
probably a
in Hanover, he married Jane Holt
mayor
of
he held
until
his death in 1761.
Williamsburg. Only a
Williamsburg, daughter
familiar figure in
the
Davies
city.
was
of
careful
to
obtain
licenses
the
few
of
months after settling
William Holt, former
for dissenting
before he began
required
in
and meetinghouses from the
Williamsburg
him into
came to the Capitol on this matter, which brought
preaching. He repeatedly
Davies
direct conflict with Peyton Randolph, attorney general of the colony, to whom
of the law regarding
proved himself the equal in his ability to argue points
reportedly
pale and
Governor Gooch described Davies as " tall, slim, well-formed . . .
dissenters.
government
ministers
wasted
by
disease, dignified
and
Samuel Davies became
well
his
own
Davies' influence
on
courteous
in
manner."
known for his preaching;
oratorical
even
Patrick
Henry
acknowledged
style.
His Huguenot family immiborn silversmith.
De Lamerie, Paul ( 1688- 1751), French less than a year old and it is
grated to England ( see Edict of Nantes *) when Paul was
was
doubtful that he ever lived in France after that. His French style developed because it
the time and because he was apprenticed to Pierre Platel, master
the prevalent art form of
goldsmith,
at
the
De Lamerie
silversmith
age
was
of
fifteen.
associated
and engraved
some
with
William Hogarth *,
outstanding
pieces
who
had been
for De Lamerie,
apprenticed
including
to
a salver
a
for
9
s• •
r
•
•
•• 0 •••• •
• •
w
�Sir Robert Walpole* in 1727.
elaborate silver work of the
be
can
seen
De Sequeyra, Dr. John ( 1712- 1795),
PortugueseJewish
tinguished
century.
In 1769 de Sequeyra
Williamsburg
He
parentage.
physician,
fire (
Anthony' s
Public Hospital for
He
was also
a
Lord Botetourt
In 1773 he
erysipelas).
the
Insane,
member
of
dramatist,
satirist,
1751
1780.
and
and
It
most
four
columnar
French
in
Williamsburg in 1745.
stepdaughter,
Patsy. In
epileptic
bilious fever
of
the
Directors from 1774
He
encyclopedist.
was
also
a
his intention
demystify
to
preindustrial
until
his death.
philosopher,
but is best known for his Encyclopedie,
novelist,
between
published
manufacturing
his importance. Jesuit educated
and to elevate the worker and recognize
St.
and
first visiting physician to the
that he kept until he died in 1795.
position
of
dis-
of
Univer-
Hermann Boerhaave,
clinician,
settled
be
was selected to
distinguished
a
art critic
was
and
Paul De Lamerie
born in London
was
his fatal illness
during
Hospital' s Board
the
Diderot, Denis ( 1713 1784),
finest
the
the medical school at the
attended
George Washington' s
attended
to attend
was called
of
by
Gallery, including
and received
1770 he
some
number of pieces
Leiden in Holland, reportedly under the leading
his medical degree on February 3, 1739. He
of
sity
A
gallery logo.
that serve as the
candlesticks
credited with
DeWitt Wallace Decorative Arts
the
at
De Lamerie is
eighteenth
techniques
friend
and a
of
Rousseau *, Diderot believed that providing documentation and information would increase man' s knowledge, broaden his experience, and in so
doing further his understand-
ing
in
the world
of
to
contribution
things was
material
criticism
and
considered
and
the
his
fascinated
to
common
man
encyclopedia
by
the
wealth
of
and
the egalitarian
was
and
knowledge
public
in
to
central
was
society
Diderot' s
detail it
recognition
Patrons,
deep
to
society
Edict
of
granted
serious
the
portray
Asia Minor,
be
a
Chiswick.
and
and
and
and
country
had
was one of those who
to the views expressed
One
was
of
taste,
the
It
was
of classical
a
convivial
sponsored
society
Greece.
where
an
the amateur tradition
interest in
of music,
architecture
be
to "
encouraged
understanding
time of
Englishmen.
the
study
deliberate in
considered a " gentleman of parts."
pieces at the
intimacy
many in
to
the value
of
one' s
as
own
literature, philosophy,
Sir Joshua Reynolds*
Sir William Hamilton' s induction into
the
this cultured and creative circle.
Nantes ( 1598), decree establishing Catholic-Protestant coexistence in France. It
The
French Protestants, the Huguenots, full civil rights by Catholic courts.
implication
of
conversation
that
enthusiasm,
interest
promote an
discuss
to
met
Italy,
to
house
pleasure
and the other arts to
two
painted
with
contained.
aid,
appealed
Lord Burlington
his
in
architect" and
painting,
dilettanti
of the
roots.
expressed
architects
and sent expeditions
The ideal
had
and
artists,
Through their financial
atmosphere.
publications
their
Thomas Jefferson
theme.
Society of ( 1732), informal organization of art-minded
by Sir Francis Dashwood and other collectors to encourage
antiquity.
for
emphasis on
in Virginia. The
developing
sympathetic
undoubtedly
technical
his
Dilettanti,
founded
respected
the
expanding
worker was reflected
of
to
subscribed
anti
be
that artisans should
French aristocracy, and Diderot' s
Christian. Thus the encyclopedia met
by
opposition.
ordinary
importance
loathed
was
Diderot' s dedication
of the
he lived. The idea
which
society
Protestant
of a
Nantes in 1685.
Catholicism,
an
While
state within
most
160, 000
estimated
a
Catholic
Huguenots
state
France
fled
led Louis XIV
in France
remained
Geneva,
to
to revoke the
Berlin,
Edict
Calvinism for
and abjured
Amsterdam,
and
London.
This infusion
England, many
fashion became
ers, perfumers,
silversmiths
relief
moved
from
and
weavers
evident
as
specialized
refugee
twenty
or
rectangular
than
benefitted. French
and
won
fame for
applied
chair
backs
10
crafts.
They .
more
shoemak-
cabinetmakers
backs.
technologically
designs, flowered
French
thicker silver with
Huguenot
curvilinear
to
French taste in
in London.
used
ornament.
toward
pattern
immigrants
thousand
and
hairdressers, bootmakers,
designs.
weavers were
their
fifty
and gunsmiths worked
new skills and more advanced
rather
to
occupations
wigmakers,
jewelers, furriers,
engraved
also
brought
refugees
practiced
makers,
square
industry
English
more
fan
brought
higher
textile
French
of
of whom
The English
advanced
silks,
and
than
printed
�As
calicoes.
helping
By 1700
the
to
it
refugees,
English have
hardly
that
Rigorously
activity.
in 1720
at
theologian
as
was called
was seventeen.
called
the
1690s.
the
for the workmanship
of
name."
He is generally
He
Awakening.*
Great
and
mercantile
thirteen,
graduating
secularism,
Yale
entered
by
the English
philosopher.
the
of science,
new age
home, Edwards
In 1729 Edwards
in Northampton, Massachusetts, which has been
he
when
of
a gallic
and
known
revival
to revive
schooled
in favor
without
vends
American
stimulating the religious
Puritan idealism in a
with
attempted
imported from France,
and silk were
of trade
now so great an esteem
anything
1758),
Edwards, Jonathan ( 1703 credited
balance
the English-French
was said that, " the
French
less linen
these innovations,
a result of
reverse
at age
to the Congregational
pulpit
most powerful
church
in New
England.
Possessed
discovered John
Locke*
Locke
from
gleaned
fascination
a
of
of
to
fraction
was
in
the
Hands
of an
the range of
his
closely
theories
used
the
and
predestination
as
Angry
the " peculiar and
God," Edwards' s
thought,
for Edwards
was
warm,
leading
immediate"
most
far
famous
the
of sermons on
series
reasoned
began to
congregation
of
conversions as evidence
of
doctrines
Calvinistic
the midst of a
His former
of salvation.
Sinners in
other
such
He later
thinker.
Edwards
mind,
analytical
extremely
American
God.
sovereignty
Late in 1734 Edwards
necessity
dramatic
before any
support
an
and
nature
with
Edwards to
more concerned with
God.
of
manifestations
sermon, presents
view
only
God' s
a
grace
He generally disapproved of extreme emotionalism in religion and went
inspired.
rebuke George Whitefield* for the hysteria his sermons
so far as to
he became a misDismissed after conflicts with his Northampton congregation in 1750,
In 1758 he was invited
near Stockbridge.
the Mohican Indians
sionary to the remnants of
later Princeton University). A few weeks
to become president of the College of New Jersey (
His
than
anger.
later he died from the
F. H. C.
Society (
1750), first
Mary.
It faded from
years.
Even
of a smallpox
effects
inoculation.
fraternity in British America, founded
during the Revolution and little is known
college
existence
at
William
and
its early
about
Latin) of the letters " F. H. C." remains a mystery.
meaning ( presumably
from the late nineteenth
The first reference to the society as the " Flat Hat Club" may date
a contemporary nickname for the society.
reflect
century, although it might
correspondence among
of
membership, and
Surviving fraternity medals, a certificate
indicate that the objectives of the society included friendship, conviviality,
members
Over the years members included Thomas Jefferson, John Page,
charity, and science.
Warner Lewis, Beverley Randolph, James Innes, and St. George Tucker.
the
Fielding, Henry (
1707- 1755), English
Tom Jones,
is
novelist.
He began his
literary
career as
less
a
than
In 1737 laws restricting the number of theaters led Fielding to an
successful dramatist.
London' s first police magistrate.
career as a lawyer, and he eventually became
alternative
which
was written
His
during
one
considered
the period
when
of the
finest
Fielding
novels of
faced large debts
men
peopled with
comic
relish
who
the
and
eighteenth
death
of
his
life;
the pleasures of
century,
and
wife
through
young
his belief in the innate goodness of man. He used satire to poke
his good
perceived in society, an effort in which he was joined by
fun
included in the libraries of Lord Botetourt, Robert
friend William Hogarth.* Tom Jones was
Carter, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and St. George Tucker.
child.
novels
are
Fielding exposed
at the hypocrisy he
them
Fox,
1691),
George ( 1624 -
underwent
a mystical
English
experience
founder
of
that convinced
an
he
1646
In
Society of Friends.
Christianity was
the
him that
inner light
believing soul. Fox began preaching in 1647
soon attracted a considerable following.
Commonly called Quakers from the spiritual
take oaths or bear
meetings, his followers refused to
experienced
during
trembling"
priests and
wanted to be free of all outward authorities, including ordained
arms.
They
by
Christ
which
ministers.
Fox
the
believers —
priests.
travels.
directly
subscribed
assumption
Quaker
and
illumines the
to
that
missionaries
the
Reformation
all men were
met with
In America Quakerism
was
idea
potentially
persecution
most
prevalent
11
of
a
universal
near enough
and
to
imprisonment
in New England.
priesthood
God
to
on
be
of
all
their own
most
of
their
�From 1671
him
to
1672 Fox
to
William Edmundson,
and
important Quaker missionary,
an
in Virginia.
traveled
Edmundson actually met with Governor Berkeley in order to speak
Friends' sufferings. Edmundson found Berkeley " peevish and brittle" and
about
departed
the meeting having made no progress in persuading the governor to be kind to
Quakers in Virginia. While in America, Fox greatly strengthened the Quaker organization
in the
colonies, though
southern
Garrick, David ( 1717- 1779), English
ralistic
varying degrees
continued to meet with
they
harassment in the
of
colonies.
He is
actor.
acting, moving away from the
of
style
developing
credited with
stylized
in
practices
a
more
natu-
in the
earlier
vogue
century.
In 1747 he became
of
stage
itself because it
He
influenced
also
directed
plays,
in the
a partner
Garrick
the productions.
many
was evident
wrote
cared more
they
development
the
several,
Lane Theatre
Drury
was credited with
of
more
sophisticated
his death had
by
and
Covent Garden
at
and managed
forbidding patrons from sitting on the
about
being seen than seeing the play.
designs.
set
amassed
Garrick
also
fortune that has been
a
10, 000.
estimated at £
Geminiani, Francesco ( 1689 1762),
Italian
eminent
His
violinist.
treatise
violin
1751
of
The Art of Playing on the Violin, has special significance for the tradition of domestic music
in eighteenth century Virginia. The predominance of the violin as the most popular in-
for
during the period is well documented. Thomas
Henry all played the violin; in fact, Jefferson had
copy of Geminiani' s influential Opus IX treatise in his private music library.
Geminiani' s work was a continuation of a long succession of instruction books for the
strument
the
gentleman
Jefferson, John Randolph,
a
Art, however, departs from
by
Archangelo Corelli in
William III
by
his daughter
duties
the
shared
Army
standing
tamper with
Rights
succession
Mary' s
or
two
in its
it
would
and
excessive
be
the
finally
governance
of
No Catholic
of
laws,
and
lasting friendship
London
His
with
literary
association
with
publisher
Dr. Samuel Johnson,
scene.
He
could
and
succeed
Mary,
novels, and
Great
and
Thomas Jefferson
public.
it
was
Awakening,
1740s.
The
also
listed in
The
of
Great
library
religious revivalism
of
John
then
Newbery
boast
of
his
Anglican
in
of
established churches
in
the
those
an
in the
Bill
a
of
and
Anne,
again.
in the
Goldsmith
authors.
his
improve
to
opened
the
door
to a
important figure
in writing fiction
drama ( She Stoops to
success
American
Enlightenment
into
crown
marry
periodicals
a
elections,
to pursue a career
versatile
The Vicar of Wakefield
George Washington.
that occurred
movement was a repudiation
to religious complacence
formalism
the
considered
maintain
to the
The Vicar of Wakefield, 1766) , poetry ( The Deserted Village, 1770) , and
Conquer, 1774), yet he constantly worried about how his works would be
British
was secured.
taxes,
should
Goldsmith became
justifiably
Rights
and
When the
Parliamentary
was educated
ultimately became one of England' s most
humorous sketches for British
essays
and
writing
financial situation.
Mary was
by a group
kings, William
of
was
II;
turned the agreement
William if he
He
James II
Parliament.
collect
with
could
William
the children of
King
right of
with
Declaration
suspend
fines. Parliament
writer.
treatise sets
school as established
to assume the throne
and
began
the
invited
believed in divine
children
violin
Catholic
when
their assent to a
provisions:
His
was a nephew of James
Parliament, interfere
1774), English
Goldsmith, Oliver ( 1730 -
Medical field
who
illegal to
was
of
consent
history
Orange
They were
Mary,
and
that
impose
sister,
of
Roman,
Geminiani' s
in England.
thoroughness.
century.
English
responsibilities
additional
thereafter
younger
Charles II.
and
without
of
William
Unlike James,
asserted
juries,
with
period
William
crown was offered to
The Declaration
seventeenth
Mary.
and
noblemen.
late
the
and a niece of
influential
Mary
in
such works printed
the performance techniques of the classical, or
replaced
of
thirty
were
the earlier violin treatises
Glorious Revolution ( 1688),
of
Patrick
From 1658 to 1731 there
violin.
down
amateur
and
one
received
of
colonies
rationalism,
by
the
his favorite
in the 1730s
an
colonies, and a change
antidote
from
the
liturgy.
Awakening
is commonly held
12
to
have
started
in
1734
when
Jonathan
�Edwards* jarred his
rejoicing in
and
revival
1739,
added
large
did its
spread, so
The
nated.
The
revival sparked
to
like the Anglican
by
There
the thousands.
itinerants —including
As
news of
this
blacks
some
Georgia.
to
in Virginia
church
in
that all men are equal
evangelical message
and poor whites
of repentance of sin
conversions.
Evangelist George Whitefield *, travelling in America in
the spread of revivalism.
His spellbinding sermons attracted
he journeyed from New England
churches
frenzy
a
effects.
momentum
crowds as
Established
its apathy and into
hundreds of
congregation out of
salvation.
God
was a proliferation
only credential
air if necessary.
open
gentry domi-
attracted slaves
of unschooled "
and women —whose
listen, in the
to preach to anyone who would
largely
were
the eyes of
New Light"
from God
was a call
A legacy of the Great Awakening was continued expansion of evangelical churches and
increasing demand for, first, toleration of religious views outside those sanctioned by the
churches,
established
leading
to
up
the
then
and
hand in hand
right went
from the
it
impossible for England (
was
Protestant Reformation)
trauma of the
for
days behind
ten
were
calendar
The English
170
another
by
those used
calendar
for
much
still
in
embroiled
New Style)
the
Roman Church.
European
other
technically
religious
and
by
England clung
Catholic
the
to the
Julian
1582, English dates
countries.
further
the colonial period was
of
devised
the result that after
years with
addition
inaccuracies
was
intellectual
the
In
days be dropped
to correct
order
calendar (
political arena
calendar.
that ten
to accept a new calendar
pope and adopted under the auspices of
Old Style)
Julian
the
XIII decreed
Although the Gregorian
calendar.
in the
developing
replacing
Pope
Agitation for this
in America.
religion
thought
governing leap
Gregory
1582 by designating October 5 as October 15 in
in the Julian
superior,
current calendar
years,
year
of
revolutionary
American Revolution.
Gregorian Calendar ( 1582),
to new rules
full freedom
the
with
complicated
by
an
anomaly that developed in medieval England when the clergy began dating the new year
from the Feast of the Annunciation — Lady Day as the English styled it—
or
March 25, making
last few days
the
in the
rest of
documents
March
of
March 24
through
first few days
both Old Style
New Style
and
though not everyone
is, the dates
the new year; that
of
the previous
year
Europe. Thus dates between January 1
with
18, 1701 / 2)
February
the
were still part of
in England but
and
years
in England
March 24
and
a
January
in
for
slash (
1
the new year
often appear
by
separated
part of
colonial
example,
the colonies used this conven-
tion.
An
end
calendar
put
was
to
these
designated September 14
lated between
confusions
Parliament.
passed
The
act
to correct
when
for
the
It
the old and new calendars.
in England from March 25 to
January
bill for
a
into
went
now
the adoption
eleven-
the
of
Gregorian
September 3,
effect
1752 which was
difference that had accumu-
day
also transferred the
beginning
of
the new year
1 starting in 1753.
Griffm, The Reverend Charles ( fl. 1715 1720), English missionary among the Indians. In
1715 he was hired and paid by Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood to teach at the
school
at
Fort Christanna in Brunswick
him very popular
seventy-five students at
made
school
the
at
College
with
the
times.
of
he
and
Later Griffin
William
His personality,
County.
Indians,
was
created a
Elector
of
returned again
George I,
Hanover in 1710
in 1712
and took
the
ascended
and
up
be
to
and
dedication
master
of
many
the
as
Indian
Mary.
and
Handel, George Frideric ( 1685 1759), German-born
to the
thriving
called upon
skills,
school with as
later
that
composer.
year made
He became kapellmeister
his first
permanent residence
visit to
in 1714
when
England. Handel
the
Elector,
now
English throne.
In his early years in England he wrote and
In 1717 he wrote the popular. Acis and Glatea, music of
many Italian operas.
by many in Virginia. With John Gay' s The Beggar's Opera* in 1728 there
decline in the popularity of Italian opera. Handel finally abandoned the form in
produced
which was owned
was
a
1741
was
and
well
popular
focused
received
form
on
the oratorio.
in England
until
as
He
well
wrote and produced
as
in Ireland
and
he
Messiah in Dublin in 1742.
continued
It
composing in this
his death.
Hepplewhite, George ( ?- 1786), English
d.
cabinetmaker and
13
designer.
Biographical infor-
�Hepplewhite is exceedingly meager.
He is known to have served an
in Lancaster and later to have conducted a business in London. In 1788
apprenticeship
The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Guide was published. No claim was made for
originality
in the Guide. These designs were not the creation of
any one particular person, but
mation
about
collectively the prevailing taste at that time. Consequently the name Heppleexpressing the current fashion rather than the works of Hepplewhite.
represented
is
white
accepted as
In fact,
to
has
there
style
for
been
never
Hepplewhite.
The Guide
fine interpretation
a
English
a native
in
engraver
himself
artist
in
1713 but found the
inspiration but
too
craft
tedious
attributed
that
adapted
both the
during
instigator
to
was able
look to the
establish
Academy,
work of other artists
for
eighteenth
but
resulted not
today,
only
from his extraordinary printmaking
best
are
in his "
seen
Engravers' Copyright Act
the
of
and
century
also
toward wide audiences and their compositions reflected
of a social reformer, which
artist was the
he
being
a silver
as
his imagination.
on
restrictive
when
career
Second St. Martin' s Lane
that artists should not
directed
were
and
in
took great pride
itself.
to nature
His images
He
thirties,
the
of
great accomplishments as a painter
ideals
his
until
Founder
artist.
belief
radical
Hogarth' s popularity,
the
directly
style and
He began his
competitors.
book illustrator
independent
an
Hogarth held the
skills.
Adam' s*
painter and engraver.
foreign
of
a sea
also worked as a
as
from his
be
that could
of
the use of the cabinetmaker.
Hogarth, William ( 1697- 1764), English
Hogarth
furniture
a single piece of
gave
of
modern moral
1735.
His
The
subjects."
theoretical
The
work
Analysis of Beauty was published the same year. Some of Hogarth' s famous works include
The Harlot' s Progress ( 1732) , The Rake' s Progress ( 1735) , Before and After ( 1736) , Marriage a
la Mode ( 1745) , and Industry and Idleness ( 1747) .
Philadelphia-born lawyer,
Hopkinson, Francis ( 1737- 1791),
Declaration
and signer of the
b
native - orn
American, " Ode to Music," in 1754
Days have been
Washington
Wondrous
so
owned copies of
Houghton ( 1722 1735),
designed
was
is Palladian
at
in
Free,"
Hopkinson'
s
He
and
1759.
statesman,
first
wrote the
first
by
great
Many
housy
influential
artisans and
Campbell' s
altered
interior design
in Norfolk, England,
himself
No
plan
set of
a
one
was
corner
Works,
of
was
the
of
towers,
the
painted
by
the influential
strong
Hundreds
furnishings.
the
Kent. The bed' s
tastemakers
architectural
eagle motifs.
of
Walpole fell from
forced
Russia in 1779.
family
has
William
in 1727 to do the
in England.
Newly
John
window shutters.
and
Kent
sculpture.
to
in 1742
period;
chairs, and to
other
and
the rooms
1, 2001
hang
the state
Architects
were
consequently, furnishings have
style relies
ponderous
look best in
moved
power
late baroque
Kent' s
pieces
of yards of green silk velvet were
ninety
gold trimmings alone cost over £
the
overtones.
His furniture
out of context when
were
1740s.
murals.
to cover the walls of two rooms, to upholster over
bed designed
House
Architect
adding domes.
elaborate
s
to the
Houghton.
commissioned
most
The house
Queen'
1720s
the
the period worked at
for the four
Board
decoration that
and
of
the
and
houses" built from
the " power
designers
of the
expense was spared on
woven
for
heavily
which
on
they
scallop shell
designed
were
and
and
interiors.
died impoverished from building Houghton. His
in the house to Empress Catherine of
to sell the great picture collection
Today
restored
Houghton is the
much
of
its
original
Hume, David ( 1711 -1776), Scottish
cal
a
Sir Robert Walpole.*
of
introduced mahogany was used for the stair balustrade, doors, and
1
Michael Rysbrack ( 1693? - 770) provided stone work ornament
tial
composed
illustrated it in Vitruvius Brittanicus.
who
was one of
Kent *, Master Carpenter
heirs
by
original
In 1788 Hopkinson
music.
composer,
of music
American song, " My
Both Thomas Jefferson and George
the
interpreted from Inigo Jones' s designs for Wilton
as
James Gibbs
country
Colen Campbell,
Greenwich. Houghton
seem
writer,
piece
dedicated to George Washington.
songs
It
Independence.
of
in British, German,
and
seat
of
the marquess of
Cholmondeley,
whose
splendor.
philosopher and
American philosophy
thinking.
14
historian.
and
in
the
He
history
was
extremely influen-
of modern metaphysi-
�Hume believed that
discovered
effect are
led him
of
the
deny
the
His
belief in
lively
Hume' s
France
and
Human
can
be
and "
how
we
know"
in human
grounded
the
know"
experience and reason.
doubts
raised
he did
providence,
and
miracles,
perfection,
existence,
things
such
questions of "what we
of
God' s
of
reality
question whether
subject
that
only be inferred on
make are based on
can
they
verified;
skepticism
distinct facts but
past
It followed that the laws we
probability.
have nothing to do with the future. Hume presented the Christian faith
Though he did not
greatest philosophical challenges it has ever faced.
and
of
one
openly
be
effect can
and
of
that cause and
Hume' s
from impressions.
come
have distinct impressions
that the mind can
but
a priori ( through reason)
ideas
all
perceived
experience
with
knowledge
no
experience;
nor cause
substance
neither
basis
believe
to
is
there
by
have
that
the
remained
controversy.
Treatise of Human Nature ( 1734 1740) was written while he was studying in
He later wrote An Enquiry Concerning
was
published in England.
subsequently
1748)
Understanding (
well
as
as
history
a
England
of
philosophical
other
and
treatises.
Hutcheson, Francis ( 1694 1746), Irish born
Scotland
in 1729
and
His
Glasgow.
work
and
inquiry
Mary
and
and
original
approach
spread
An
man
the senses yet
was
though
the
is
not
of cosmic
explains
which
a
of
moral
a
were
powerful
America
to
not
a
limited
to
the
of
of
College
at the
spirit
of
Thomas Jefferson.
on
He
He
We
reenact
to
this
entirely
real
in
as
sense."
by
any
It is
delight in
their
see
order
formation
the arts and the
effect of
This delight is as
the " internal
called this
because humans like
one
an
that one of the pleasures
argued
harmony.
and
to them.
He developed
toward one another rather than
man
aesthetics.
to others.
extended
civilizing
and
University
the
at
stimulation
Continent.
the
and
motivating
predatory
order
influence
profound
in Ireland
was educated
philosophy
into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue ( 1725),
moral sense, a theme that dominated the Scottish Enlight-
His starting point was
his delight in order
pleasure of
appetite,
methods
to the problem of
motivating
evidences
He
philosopher.
chair
Inquiry
man' s
quickly
animal gratification.
an
the
to
they had
work,
meaning for
enment
teaching
where
Hutcheson' s first
established
elected
William Small* introduced Hutcheson' s techniques
in Scotland.
William
was
our
own
lives,
delicate
of graceful and
habits.
Ear, War
Jenkins'
incidents in
hostilities
naval
decided
to
1739),
of (
Americas
the
and
use
British - panish
S
such
English
as
logging
troops
colonial
its
campaign
thereafter as "
capes,
Gooch
the command of
Council.
himself
In
was
spite
were
of
his
attack
ear
on
nature
They
governor
of
British
the
Spanish
government
provinces
quota of
400
men,
force
were part of a
in
the
known
of
3, 000
Colonel Alexander Spotswood,
months,
Spanish
the
he
of
Spanish in Cartagena ( in
for ten
at
Cartagena
was struck
by
the campaign,
was
unsuccessful,
a cannonball that
Gooch
Colombia).
day
present -
the government in the
leaving
reported
and
hands
Gooch
injured both legs.
that " the
Virginians
my return day and night firing guns, bonfires and illuminations."
its colorful name as a result of widespread public outrage when
Robert Jenkins
for
against the
wounded when
disastrous
rejoiced at
Virginia' s
series
forces from America. When Spotswood died in Annapolis in
posts.
Departing in October 1740 from the Virginia
Williamsburg
conflict acquired
shipmaster
off
The
severely
the
mightily
The
from
former Virginia
the
a
Spain in Florida, Spanish
his military
to
expedition
was absent
the
of
an
the
of
succeeded
he led
raised
Colonel Gooch' s American Regiment."
quartermaster general
1740, Gooch
against
by
provoked
was
with
in Honduras. When
activities
in
Americas, Lieutenant Governor William Gooch
colonials under
It
conflict.
border disagreements
suspected
Jones, Hugh ( 1692- 1760),
to the
reported
smuggling
House
of
Commons
that the
Spanish had
cut
author of
The
activities.
mathematics professor at
William
and
Mary
and
Present State of Virginia ( 1724). He arrived in Virginia from England in 1716 shortly after
In addition to his professorship, Jones was
receiving a master' s degree from Oxford.
to serve
appointed
In
both
1719 he became
Spotswood
ministers
and
the
the
as chaplain
entangled
in
to the
a
General
Reverend James Blair *,
motion
was
made
that
Assembly
dispute between
the
and as minister at Jamestown.
Lieutenant Governor Alexander
president of the
bishop
15
suspend
College.
At
Blair because
a
of
gathering of
his Scottish
�Blair,
ordination.
no stranger to power struggles, won the
Spotswood
sided with
created
difficulties
dispute.
The fact
Blair that led Jones to
with
he had
that
return to
England in
1721.
After
four year
-
a
he
absence,
Virginia.
returned to
Blair
him
assigned
to preside over
Saint Stephen' s Parish in King and Queen
County, which was known to be a difficult
parish. Jones held this position for a year then moved to a series of
Maryland parishes.
Hugh Jones died in Maryland in 1760.
His
especially The Present State of Virginia,
intellectual, and emotional world of
writings,
natural,
physical,
Kant, Immanuel ( 1724 1804), German
father in 1746
his
cut short
Through
philosopher.
Lutheran Church, Kant
family' s
the
of
invaluable references
Virginia.
are
influence
the
It
the
1755,
was not until
the pastor
of
The death
obtained a classical education.
college education.
to
colonial
of
his
after several years as
Kant was awarded a doctor' s degree from the
University of Konigsberg,
he became a lecturer at the
university. Although he was known as an excellent
teacher, Kant was not elevated to a full
professorship of logic and metaphysics until 1770.
He held this position until just before his death.
tutor, that
a private
whereupon
Kant' s early thinking was heavily influenced by the rationalism of Gottfried Wilhelm von
and Sir Isaac Newton.
During the 1760s his close reading of the English philosophers John Locke* and David Hume* began to undercut his earlier belief in dogmatic
rationalism. His meditations on these writers resulted in the Critique
of Pure Reason ( 1781) ,
Leibniz
Critique of Practical Reason ( 1788), and Critique of Judgment ( 1790),
among others. Kant' s
was that he produced a synthesis of Leibniz' s rationalism and Hume' s
achievement
He
skepticism.
only in
even
categories
if
certain
Kant
the
universal
nature
general
invention
it,
Kay' s
device
invention
by
in
the
be
to
an
to
fly
hand
speed of
in the
widespread
free to
in 1733.
no
put
be
necessary
his
son
structured
improvements. Before
the thread
a
into
stick with
hand
beater
and
Kay' s
hand
The
fly
a weaver
loom quickly. With
not have to return
did
invention
Robert
Kay' s
to receive
position.
one
greatly increased. The
England.
and not until
are
century.
the shuttle, the other
By jerking
was
weaving
that
Horizontal looms had been in
major
operate the
north of
say
cannot
his ideas
and
that carried the thread across the
was
God
people.
shuttle
idea.
the
way
went on to
of
because they
late Enlightenment
with
simple
refined
fly
shuttle was
first
was adopted
slowly
invention did it
the
use.
Kent, William ( 1684 1748), English
departed
Yorkshire
all
century
hand to throw
be pulled down to
a shuttle
industry
traditional industry,
Yorkshire, he
Kant
existence
throughout the nineteenth
the
of
amazingly
the second
attain
on
to the
conforms
the senses and understood
to exist a priori
to use one
manually. The
very
binding
the
example,
thirteenth
the woolen
begin to
for
presumed
debate
beater had
the
was
it
as
through
perceived
philosopher of the
had
the weaver
the shuttle
used
the
since
propel and return
could
be
1704 1764), inventor
finally,
and,
shuttle
must
of philosophical
use
only be
unknowable,
laws
foremost
the
be known only insofar
can
can
the mind makes sense of perceptions.
are
they
was
Kay, John (
by which
proved,
scientifically
for
Objects
things
some
thing
argued a
knows things.
mind
architect,
was apprenticed at age
fourteen
landscape
architect, and
to a coach and
house
designer.
painter
Born in
in Hull.
for London before completing his
apprenticeship.
recognized his talents and sent him to
Italy around 1710.
without permission
Kent
Several
During his
he eventually came to the notice of Richard Boyle, third earl of
Burlington, who later brought Kent back to England and set him
up in his own dwelling
for the remainder of his life.
ten-year
gentlemen
stay in
Italy,
With Burlington' s
designs.
His
trademark.
He
as a gardener.
as
by
the
never
Kent
designs
architectural
Kent' s
encouragement,
approach to
most
design
drew
was
a plan of
Kent tried his hand
purely
his
proposed
strongly influenced
Inigo Jones. He also
was
of
visual;
by
layouts,
nor
did he
the architecture
suggested
and landscape
his designs were his
at architectural
pictorial views of
of
possess
any training
Andrea Palladio
furniture designs
to
as well
complete
his
creations.
enduring
refinements was
the
legacy
house
and a project
and gardens of
to which
he devoted many years
at Chiswick.
Lord Burlington
16
of
continuing
�According
formal
Horace Walpole, Kent
to
parterres of the
He
pleasing nature."
changing in favor
statuary.
King
revolutionized
previous generation with
recognized
of " natural,"
that
classical
the
English gardening,
replacing
clumps of trees and serpentine
tastes
landscapes
of
his English
the
lines
contemporaries
of
were
temples, grottoes, cascades, and
with
George' s War ( 1743- 1748), English-French conflict over Canada.
During the course
War of Spanish Succession ( called Queen Anne' s War in America), French and
the
of
Indian forces
Utrecht
of
in
were
ended
English in Canada for
conflict with the
Queen Anne' s
in 1713
by granting
settlements there.
The
Treaty
France and
others to England, but ambiguities in the
treaty led to subsequent hostilities between the
two countries.
By 1743 the French were again attacking settlements in Canada, Maine, and
New York,
1748) a New
precipitating King George' s War, during the course of which ( 1743 England force took Louisbourg
In July 1746 Governor Gooch
a call for troops in the colonies
war
and
certain territories to
Cape Breton Island from
convened the
to march with
French.
the
Virginia General Assembly in response to
British forces on Canada.
Recruiting was
difficult because officers and men who had taken
the War of Jenkins' Ear* felt that
they had not
part
in the Cartagena
received
expedition
during
fair treatment from the British
authorities.
King George II again chose Gooch to lead the troops from the colonies, but
he declined saying that he was " fitter for an hospital than a
camp."
The attempt to add Canada to the English colonies failed, and
George' s War ended
in 1748
before
the
with
Treaty
the conflict,
out again
Kneller,
but it
of
was apparent
later in
seven years
only
King
Aix-la-Chapelle.
the
Territories
that the
French
treaty
and
was
were
only
as
they had been
for hostilities broke
restored
a truce,
Indian War.
1646 1723), German-born portrait painter. He was taught
by Rem Ferdinand Bol. Kneller went to Italy in the 1660s and / or 1670s,
where he studied Raphael and the antique. He went to England in 1676 and
soon became
King Charles II' s favorite painter.
brandt
Godfrey (
and
During
pupil
the reign of
competition
led
his
from
and engraved
The
James II, Kneller
During
others.
prints of them
William
the only court painter and faced keen
Kneller' s full length portraits were unequal-
was not
that period
began appearing in
the colonies.
Mary was the zenith of Kneller' s career. He maintained a
studio similar in scope to
Lely' s.* Kneller' s royal portraits were more widely copied and
distributed than any other artist' s. Colonial
Williamsburg' s William Byrd II is an example
of his studio work. Kneller was the first governor of the London
Academy for Drawing and
Painting from 1711 to 1718.
reign
of
and
Sir Peter ( 1618 1680), Dutch - orn English portrait painter. Little is known of his
b
early training, but he went to England in the early 1640s. Whether he was apolitical or
politically shrewd is arguable, but the artist managed to work for Charles I, Cromwell, and
Charles II.
Lely,
At
Restoration,
the
Dyck' s
successor.
English
He
Lely
citizen and was
from life but merely
hands
and garments to
known
of
Licensing
Act,
best
painter
in England, officially regarded as Van
in 1661. The next year he became an
King
prolific worker,
Lely painted the heads of his
laying in the colors of the
sketched their poses and costumes,
be
completed later
by his many assistants. The studio turned out
importance, including Charles II' s female associates, otherwise
Hampton Court Beauties."
everyone
the "
as
the
Painter to the
knighted in 1680. A
sitters
portraits
was
was made
of
expiration of ( 1695),
easing of government censorship. Since the introducprinting into England in 1477, both the government and the Church of England
had extensive powers of censorship on publications before
they were printed. This power
tion of
was granted
allowed to
through a series
lapse
of
Licensing
Acts.
In 1695 the last
of
the
Licensing
Acts
was
limited to post publication libel laws. The
suspension of these acts spurred the development of a press
that was at
liberty to publish
works without the consent of the authorities.
In both Britain and the North American
colonies a
strong periodical and political press flourished ( See Zenger *).
and governmental control was
17
�Linnaeus, Carl ( 1707 1778), Swedish botanist. He first revealed his
system of classification
that included all
living things in Systems Naturae ( 1735) and Genera Plantarum ( 1737). In
his classification system,
every living thing has two names, one for genus and the other for
species.
Species Plantarum ( 1753) remains the basis for
modern botanical nomenclature.
Locke, John ( 1632- 1704), English
politician, and one of the
philosopher, teacher, physician,
Royal
members of the
early
Oxford, Locke became interested in
science
Society.
scholar, administrator,
Educated
and
at
Christ Church,
philosophy
ultimately examined
theoretical questions about the nature of
man and
society. He also experienced the
practical problems of government
and
h
economy first - and when he served on the Board
of Trade
advising King William III on colonial policies. No small part of Locke' s understanding of the colonies was gained through meetings and correspondance with
Virginia
Commissary James Blair.*
Locke wrote Two Treatises on Government (
1690) as a defense of the Glorious Revolution
of 1688.*
It defended limited
monarchy and stressed consent of the governed and the
natural rights of the people. This
written defense set a precedent
for the Declaration of
and
Independence.
An
Essay Concerning
man as rational,
free
described
the
that
Human
and
Understanding ( 1690) examined the basic characteristics of
living in a state of nature governed by law. Locke
equal, and
acquires
human
mind at birth as a blank slate (
tabula rasa) without ideas,
arguing
knowledge through experience ( reflection and
impressions of the
external world derived through the
senses).
Locke' s influential Some Thoughts
Concerning Education ( 1693) began as a series of letters
about education.
Because Locke believed that perception was the
source of knowledge
and that the derivation of
knowledge was through experience, he had several
innovative
ideas about the proper
raising of children. For example, he suggested
making tasks of
pleasurable
man
learning
languages and
Carolina asking
by turning
into games. His works were translated into
several
in a letter
by Eliza Lucas Pinckney from South
friend in England to send her
a
young son " The new
even
a
were
them
mentioned
I have
carefully studied) to play himself into
which
Locke' s ideas
America
about
the
and
London, George (
education
and
his
description
toy (
of
learning."
political
views
influential in
were
early Republic.
colonial
1640 1714), English gardener, nurseryman, and landscape
architect.
Royal Gardener to Charles II at St. James' s Palace in
1666, London was
recognized for his talents and sent to France for
study around 1672. He was one of over
three hundred gardeners employed
by Louis XIV at Versailles and elsewhere. In 1685
London traveled in Holland, where he studied
Dutch landscape styles. Upon his return
to England, he put this
knowledge to use in
designing formal gardens at a number of
Apprenticed
ca.
to the
estates.
The
design of that day was
very formal, with bilateral symmetry around one
French features included
radiating avenues of trees extending out at angles
style of
central axis.
from
a
central
point, ornate
and the extensive use of
canals, and
reflecting
in the form
of
patterns
pools.
mounts,
of gravels
or
small plants,
formally
grouped
trees,
fountains. The Dutch added a wide
variety of topiary,
To these
many features were often added additional touches
and
statuary
mazes,
water
cascades,
and
even "
friezes) a type of decorative wooden lattice
In 1681 George London founded the Brompton
Park
pediments, and
treillage" ( arches,
pilasters,
work.
Nursery in London with three
After the retirement and deaths of his partners
by 1687,
nurseryman
Henry Wise ( 1653 -1738) joined the business. Thereafter, the
nursery grew in
fame as London and Wise achieved a virtual
monopoly in the field. The purposes of the
nursery were to provide plants of all types, to standardize the use of plant names,
especially
of fruit trees, and to design
and construct gardens.
In 1689 London became Royal Gardener
and
Deputy Superintendent of Works. In that
other
notable
gardeners.
capacity London dispatched
an assistant to
Williamsburg in 1694 " to make and plant the
New Colledge."
This assistant may have been James Road, a
Hampton Court, who is known to have come to Virginia in
Garden designed for
gardener at
the
In 1702 William III died
in
a review of
expenditures
1694.
and
his
for the
i
sister -n
law, Anne,
ascended the throne.
royal gardens, she resolved to
restrain
18
Soon after,
further spending
�i
and seek ways to economize all of the royal
was
London
activities.
inopportune
this
picked
very
sacked and replaced
promptly
Wise.
by
London
a
gardening
outstanding bills; he
to present
moment
Wise
and
two volume
from the French,
Louvre, The ( 1793) , French
former
palace
was
collection
from
Louvre
the
captured
national
into
modified
Francois I
a
hundred
two
collections
again
some
Italian city-states
rulers of the
first
the
Marot, Daniel ( 1661 -
Daniel Marot
before
stance
He
was the
once
he
When William
of
inspiration
bringing
interiors
of
responsible
for
England
to
was
of
of
separated
and
by
1793 it
the
Its
thinking.
was opened
to all
in Europe.
He fled France in 1684
him
the
or
idea
and
of complete control
so as to present a unified
England to take
such a
dictatorial
was
the
small
palace
of
William
strong influence, he had
a
from his
native
to
Mary
and
rely
his
on
at
own
country.
Orange became William III, Marot followed him to England
idea
the
of
Hampton Court,
and
bringing
only influence from Paris, but from Holland as well. Marot introduced an
to
which
completely captivated Queen Mary II — furnish houses with chinaware —
that
increased
to the
of
Kensington Palace
and was
not
to
much
design
He
let
century,.
Het Loo,
1680s
the
century
Napoleon.
by
Enlightenment
furnishings
and
the eighteenth
time
war reparations.
pay
art, and
with
in Holland
person
only
primary designer
Though Paris
Otterloo.
European
of
this
of
product
art museum
the end of the seventeenth
the
was
a
of
Orange
of
Louis XIV increased the
the end
1752), French Huguenot designer.
design, particularly
of all aspects of
whole.
as
a
collections.
royal
Holland, for instance)
and
use art rather than cash
major public
William
the service of
entered
Egypt
countries (
Louvre is especially significant
founders intended it as an encyclopedia
making it
At
enhanced,
significantly
published
housed in
museum,
French
the
to collect paintings, while
The
citizens,
The
arts.
exhibited
gallery,
they jointly
Retir' d Gardener.
the
of
in 1706
and
the
to two thousand works.
were
from
art objects
king
Nursery
called
museum
picture
first French
the
Brompton
continued with
taken
work,
to the point of
One
ceiling.
piling it
Marot' s
of
upon cabinets, scrutoires, and chimneypieces almost
just
engravings shows
such
an
arrangement
for
made
up
the
Queen.
Daniel Marot
fluencing
published
who
many
were
many designs
of
furnishings
interior decorations,
and
in-
thus
follow in his footsteps.
to
Williamsburg ( before 1751 - present), fraternal organization stressing
brotherly love. Some of its early members listed on the 1762 -1763 treasurer' s
charity
report include John Blair, Jr., Charles Carter,
Peter Hay, and Peyton Randolph, Grand
Masonic Lodge,
and
Records
Master.
Masons
as
the
of
local lodge
balls
and
dinners
as well
pick
again
up
from England.
obtained a new charter
philanthropic
as
in 1773
Minutes
when
also
minutes revealed that the
record
social activities such
projects.
Other contemporary lodges in Virginia were at Norfolk, Fredericksburg, Kilwinning
The Williamsburg Lodge' s membership in the 1770s included
and Blandford.
Crosse,
many familiar
Benjamin Bucktrout, James Galt,
names:
Harwood, William Hunter, James Madison, James
ham*, Edmund Randolph, George Reid,
still
In 1777
Grand Master.
Lodge
of
Masons
Virginia.
of
Mattey' s
the
The
the
next year
Grand Lodge
Free School ( 1706),
of
her
son
Matthew
of
and
Williamsburg
1790
was
as
writing,
in 1742,
and
located
consisting
on
Capitol
died
she
was
school.
for
elected
Mrs.
at about age nine.
Landing
Road
of a schoolhouse and
and arithmetic
called
Humphrey
James Monroe, Peter Pel-
St. George Tucker;
Masons
John Blair, Jr.,
memory
James Whaley, in Bruton Parish Churchyard.
School
McClurg,
Peyton Randolph
was
the
formation
the
first Grand Master
of a
Grand
of
Virginia.
local charity
who
John Minson Galt,
Mary Whaley
He is buried
The institution
and
dwelling
is illustrated
house. Its
to the neediest children of
the
named
on the
established
alongside
College
purpose was
Bruton Parish. When
it in
his father,
Mattey' s Free
Map of about
to teach
reading,
died
Mary Whaley
bequeathed the property to Bruton Parish for administration by the minister
The school operated as late as 1768 according to Virginia Gazette
churchwardens.
advertisements,
but how it functioned
and where
19
the
money
came
from is
not
known.
�In 1865 the College
due
ment that
College
it the Grammar
called
money
and
Whaley
had
to
name
build
to
block
been
To
of
this
he
in
law,
the
and
in
held
century
the office of chief
devote
the
and
Palace,
the
retains
Williamsburg
eighteenth -
officials.
Governor' s Palace
way for reconstruction of
the present Palace.
This school
resident.
of
letters.
nobility, inherited large
estates,
and
philosopher,
family
educated
Bruton Parish
to
make
Montesquieu, Baron de ( 1689- 1755), French lawyer,
Born Charles - ouis de Secondat, he came from a
L
was
administrator of the endow-
released
the site of the
a school on
west
memorialize
designated
was
never
School.
Mattey
the school was relocated one
Matthew
Mary
and
technicalities
the
officials used
William
of
legal
to
of
justice
man
Bordeaux for
of
ten years.
his writing.
Eventually
Montesquieu wrote and published on a variety of subjects. His works include The Persian
Letters ( 1721), a satire and criticism of French institutions, and his most famous composition,
The Spirit of the Laws ( 1748). Montesquieu traveled widely and lived in Britain for several
resigned
He became
years.
of
separation
an
a
travelers,
contemporary
determined
ardent
to
admirer
formidable
and
No
climate
French
Yale
at
classes
sides
of
the
monarchy
with
its
is
observations,
that
earned
Montesquieu
Princeton
was
used
of
texts,
political
influence
the politics
the title of "Father of
Sociology."
during the colonial period.
During the Constitutional
of his works were read
by many
known in America
it as a textbook.
frequently
Declaration
ancient
study of
behavior is
and
social
from
thorough
a
cited.
All
Independence
and were
found in libraries
on
Atlantic.
Northwest Ordinance
of
own
He believed
work was as well
and
the men who signed the
both
s
and that physical environment and religion
Convention in 1787, Montesquieu
of
constitutional
compilation of material assembled
emphasizing freedom.
by
other modern
Political
England' s
of
Montesquieu'
country. This latter theory has
of a
time to
more
powers.
The Spirit of the Laws,
governments,
order
of
1787, legislation providing for the rapid and orderly expansion
As the Constitutional Convention deliberated in
the new nation across the continent.
in Philadelphia, the Congress
secret sessions
in New York the
Northwest
the
area,
liberties
In
Territory
states?
to
other
a
for the
comprehensive
words,
would
The 1787 Ordinance
the territories
states,
admission
for
system
western
be
Articles
of
of
new
Confederation meeting
It opened up the
for settling
states,
and
and
governing
protected
the
civil
be
colonies
in the West that
states of the
Confederation Congress
the
expansion,
equal or subservient
territories
assured settlers
into full fledged
it dealt
Northwest.
the
Northwest Ordinance.
settlement, established a coherent plan
whether newer settlements would
in
under
the
produced
settlers.
addition
states;
for
summer
guidelines
provided
of
debated
same
Union.
As
of
to the thirteen original
the
well
as
dealing
slavery issue in a very decisive way: slavery
The Ordinance also provided for religious freedom.
with
established
a process existed
the
was
with
eastern
for changing
status of
forbidden in
the
the
Drafted by Nathan Dane and based on a 1784 ordinance plan
by Jefferson, the
Northwest Ordinance covered the area that includes the present day states of Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota.
Paine,
Thomas ( 1737- 1809),
science
influenced Paine' s
English
pamphleteer
thinking along
progressive
and
lines.
radical.
Newtonian
He left England in 1774 with
in Philadelphia. He became
political
a letter of introduction from Benjamin Franklin and settled
famous for his activities on behalf of the colonies during the American Revolution and in
France during the French Revolution. More than 100, 000 copies of his political treatise
Common Sense ( 1776) were published in America within a few months. It was influential in
about the Declaration of Independence. Other works
by Paine include The Rights
Man and The Age of Reason, for which he was called an atheist.
of
Paine lived a turbulent career.
He held several offices in the colonies
the
bringing
Revolution but
honorary
citizen
during
made
by
enemies
the
imprisoned
subsequently lost favor. In France he was made an
government in 1792 and was a delegate to the Conven-
and
republican
enemy during the Reign of Terror. Paine died in the United
States in poverty, denounced as a radical and an atheist. In later years he came to be
regarded as an American patriot and an important crusader for democratic rights.
tion until
as an
20
�Peale, Charles Willson ( 1741 -1827), American
Born in Queen
portrait and genre painter.
County, Maryland, he was the son of a schoolmaster. Peale tried his hand at several
including saddle making before attempting to earn a living at sign painting. His
Anne' s
crafts
interest in
painting began
portrait
he learned
when
that
pay money for
people would
their
likenesses.
a
painting not as fine art but as a craft. He bought himself
John Hesselius a saddle for some painting lessons. In 1765 Peale
how -o" book and traded
t
visited John Smibert' s old studio in Boston, where he met John Singleton Copley *, and
At first Peale
approached
1769)
in London ( 1767 -
then spent two years
marked change
in his
style
his
hung
alongside
works
were
particularly impressed
legged stance of casual
The
Washington.
Nancy Hallam as
Weeping ( 1772),
is
his
seen after
Gainsborough' s
by
artist' s
famous
other
Group (
of
pictures
the
Harvey,
in his
apparent
London,
his
was
cross -
George
William Pitt ( 1768),
of
1772)
Family (
where
Peale
day.
with
state portraits of
portraits
The Cadwalader
1795),
style art of
Captain
of
include
works
Fidele in Cymbeline ( 1771),
The Staircase
portrait
This influence is
elegance.
high
A
Benjamin West.*
tutelage of
the
to the
the great English
of
some
under
exposure
Rachel
as
as well
The Exhumation of the Mastodon ( 1806-
and
1808) .
Peale'
of
interrupted
s career was
Trenton
history,
Princeton.
and
founded
and
He
first
our
by
Revolution,
the
invented
also
national
Peale'
subjects
his industrious
and
nature
prosperity
Pelham, Peter, Jr. ( 1721- 1805),
London
Singleton
Copley'
brothers.
Peter Pelham
s*
acting
organ
and
providing
This wide
brothers.
jailor.
position
a
self made
-
He
His father
was
of
his
of
man.
born in
married
John
making Pelham and the well known artist stepto Williamsburg in 1751 after serving as organist at Trinity
came
next half century he blessed the city with his musical talents,
Bruton Parish Church ( beginning in 1755), giving instruction on
musical instruments from London, and
harpsichord and advice on
music
For the
for
of
helped him
Burgesses
Peter Pelham
an
to
ordering
the 1768
including
theater,
the
range of services
Gaoler from 1771
as
and
to
American
clerk, and
musician,
his father
Academy
the character of
at
organist
for the House
known
the American
capture
the epitome of the
battles
mother,
widowed
Church in Boston.
as
with
and
to
ability
the
was a scholar of natural
him from humble beginnings
Williamsburg
immigrated to Boston
and
took
making him
and social position,
s
he fought in
which
devices,
in 1789
museum
Fine Arts in 1794, both in Philadelphia.
during
mechanical
and
for
at
support
least
performance
his large
family.
of
He
The Beggar' s Opera.*
did
also
clerical work
two royal governors and served as the
Public
1780.
received
engraver)
much
and
of
his
education
from his father ( Peter Pelham, Sr., best
Carl Theodore Pachelbel,
nephew
of
Johann Pachelbel.
satirical extract from Benjamin Franklin' s pamphlet, Remarks Conesteem the kind of
learning
cerning the Savage of North America. " We know that you highly
But you, who are wise, must know that different nations have
taught in those colleges ....
different conceptions of things: and you will not therefore take it amiss, if our ideas of this
Polite Refusal ( 1784),
kind
of
of education
it;
several of our
provinces;
bad
were
cold or
our
they
happen
be
young
instructed in
were
runners,
ignorant
hunger, knew
language
not to
the same with yours.
of
neither
imperfectly,
all
every
how
were
means
to
build
of
living
by
it, if
in
some experience
the woods, unable to
a cabin, take a
therefore neither
lors; they were totally good for nothing.
We are however not the less obligated
your
it;
and, to show our grateful sense of
of
their sons, we will take care of their education,
deer,
fit for hunters,
kind
offer,
the gentlemen of
instruct
kill
nor
warriors,
though
we
Virginia
them
in
an
bear
enemy,
nor
either
spoke
councel-
decline accepting
dozen
will send us a
all we
know,
and make
of them."
men
Pope, Alexander ( 1688- 1744), English
epic
We have had
formerly brought up at the colleges of the northern
your sciences; but, when
they came back to us, they
people were
poems of
and
poet and satirist.
Milton
was
His boyhood interest in the
a springboard
to
his
successful
great
career as
a
early works imitated epic poetry, but he soon created his own style. Pope felt
that as a poet he occupied a unique position to use satire to criticize the moral and political
weaknesses of the
society in which he lived. The Rape of the Lock ( 1712), his greatest work,
poet.
Pope'
Homer, Virgil,
s
21
�to
his
on
one
eenth-century
the
restrictions
eenth century
be
Pope'
Virginians
including
near
but very
small
Robert Carter
By
the Capitol."
painter
Pratt had been
that time
the
eight-
only
he
achieved
and physical
eight -
prominent
of
in
deformity
Thomas Jefferson.
and
who
biographers
and
was
which
success
inventories
the
organized
first
the
art exhi-
recorded
which [ were
Collection of Paintings,
neat
he probably
of sorts
warfare
literary
the
to
relation
brought with
1773, Virginia Gazette, he "
to the March 4,
Vobe' s
exhibited] at Mrs.
Williamsburg. According
a
in
appeared
works
s
a
his Catholicism
as a result of
him
placed on
paralysis.
in
Less
proportion.
man' s
contemporaries
poet,
a
as
successful
financially
1805), American
Pratt, Matthew ( 1734 him ...
He
of
out
with
engaged
Nevertheless,
vindictive."
and "
to
writer
from infantile
bition in
deals
which
Addison, causing both
time friend, Joseph
-
label him ` waspish"
spite of
incident
trivial
and to happiness.
to himself, to society,
universe,
with
Essay
An
was
successful
magnify a
1734),
1733 Man (
to
epic
an
framework of
the
used
a
professional
painter
for
years,
eighteen
abroad.
and
both in the colonies
Pratt set
Claypoole.
working
to painter James
apprenticed
artist was
Born in Philadelphia, the
artistic journey
the important
in 1758, six years later making
his
as a portrait painter
In 1768 Pratt reopened
up shop
West.*
American-born Benjamin
with
to London to study
He was forced to
York and Virginia.
excursions to New
studio
in
Philadelphia and made
revert
to
sign
Henry (
Purcell,
King' s
the depressed
painting in
1677
band in
composition
prolific
of
Queen ( 1692),
and
English
at
opera
baroque
one
opera,
His death
English idioms.
at
Parish ( 1724),
Questionnaire,
question
to the
number
ANSWER —I
and
Whitsunday
Whitsunday is
September
There
is
Italian
of
French
Virginia' s
Sunday
the
seventh
questions
also
about
the
do
not
Sunday
after
Easter,
practices
Anglican
but
entire
questionnaire
copy of the
in the
2
reel M - 86)
style
and
century.
Bishop
his
administered?
of
answer
And
what
endeavors.
way
go
and
toward
of the
Day
is
youth,
on
the
The
an
giving
Blair' s handwritten
with
communicants."
Michaelmas
the catechizing
service,
Sunday
story
in the local parish.
the
tell ,
the
many
and
this
at that time and
Supper
y
of
Christmas, Easter,
educational
An
s
of
at
viz;
times in the year,
the Sacrament four
50
Michaelmas. There are about
to
nearest
Pentecost,
styles
to
activities
Bruton Parish Church
Lorrd'
The
direction
eighteenth
of Communicants?
salary
questions
ons
parish
29.)
are
Italian
in England in the early
opera
on
and
halted the development
the
the Sacramenteof
administer
the
thirty-six
of
report
mixture
the
reflected
which
a good
How
QUESTION
ESTION
its
of
was the rector
London. James Blair*
usual
of
chamber
the
printed
Purcell
such
masques
music,
Aeneas ( 1689),
and
of
age
the
domination
led the way for the
the
Dido
because
that time
music,
church
His first
in 1675.
1,
volume
for
composer
Abbey
Choice Ayres,
s
He became
in 1679.
composer.
Westminster
at
organist
and
in John Playford'
appears
composer
b
English - orn
1695),
1659 -
ca.
the Revolution.
after
years
answers
g
understand
can
be
seen
on
original
microfilm (
Radcliffe Camera,
Foundation
The, ( 1737 - 1747),
chief
distinctive
Library.
one of
mark
of
Oxford
the libraries at
the Oxford
skyline.
a
vaulted
University.
The
Its dome
architect was
James
Sir Christopher
churches called for in
of the
also designed many
considered
Gibbs ( 1682- 1754), who
Fields. The library is
i
Martin' s -n-the London, including St.
Wren' s* design for
into the skyline and the
was integrated
of the way it
achievement because
Gibbs' s crowning
is
considered
the
campus.
The
rotunda
term
are
camera
by
comes
definition
from the Latin meaning "
interchangeable
space ";
thus,
camera
and
terms.
He began his
architect.
landscape architect and
1752- 1818), English
the age
Repton, Humphry (
When Repton married at
age thirty six.
late in life, starting at
his heart was not
career comparatively
in Norwich, but
general merchant
his father set him up as a
He spent
of twenty one
bought a small estate.
the business and
death he sold
in it; soon after his father' s
22
�the next five years gardening and making drawings of natural scenes and the country
houses nearby.
His principal contribution was in bringing back the flower garden to
surround the house.
Very often this was made on a terrace, fenced or balustraded, which
function
the
served
In the
period
next
descriptive
thirty
His way
fashion
was
notable
of
breaking
surviving landscapes may be
Sheffield Park.
London
and
a
abroad
trip
ambitious portraits of
Reynolds
with
Lely*
society' s
Reynolds
for enhancing
When
elite.
He
Royal
the
knighted
was
of
Art
apprenticeship in
London to paint
Allan
Rosetta Stone,
had
glyphs
His popularity
in 1784, Reynolds
Ramsay
found
in
three
large
maintained a
may in
as a portraitist
rate
in the
1799),
of (
disuse
into
Tragedy
be
part
and profitable studio
decree
key
to
the
after
his
genius
at
In 1799
over a thousand years.
Memphis,
Greek.
and
The
capital of ancient
the
immediate interest in
some of
Egyptian town
the
V, providing
the
Ptolemy
as
the
Tragic Muse
understanding Egyptian hieroglyphics. Hierodecline of ancient Egypt, and the language
rubble of a wall near
made
the coronation of
by
explained
1762).
Comedy (
and
languages—
hieroglyphic, demotic,
text, a
same
Discovery
a rock slab
was
often
indecipherable for
remained
his
the same year
supplying character or psychological depth where little
known works include Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, and her
nature,
fallen
founded in 1768,
was
George III in 1769,
of
his
of
Corsham Court,
King.
David Garrick Between
and
other
after"
to
His well
actually existed.
Daughter ( 1786); George August Eliott, Lord Heathfield ( 1788); Sarah Siddons
1784);
meticulous
and
at
an
returned
Academy
by
After the death
Kneller* before him, Reynolds
and
assistants.
many
painter.
masters,
on art was published.
Painter to the
Like
portrait
the
study
was elected president.
first Discourse
made
to
After
English
Reynolds, Joshua ( 1723 1792),
today
seen
the
consultant of
designs
called "
and
and
fashionable
a
Red Books ", and wrote several
from his Red Books in a " before and
Some
presentational method in his day.
and ground-
commissions
Uppark, Hanworth,
as
watercolor
elegant
pictorial views
presenting
a novel
himself
established
extensively, produced
for his various clients,
proposals
books.
Repton
years
traveled
and
haha.
of a
key
of
Napoleon'
Rosetta. It
was
s soldiers
inscribed
writings were versions
Egypt, in 195 B. C. to
the
of
commemo-
to the eventual translation of
Egyptian
hieroglyphics.
Napoleon took
to
stone sent
an
of the
hieroglyphs.
shown
fragments
understood their
a
still
In 1801
French
a
boy,
Vowing
including Greek,
impressions from
the
Greek but only a fraction
Jean Francois Champollion ( 1790 1832), was
to translate the
tablets
with
hieroglyphs
to read them one
meaning.
used
tablet and ordered
who were able
of papyrus and stone
dozen languages
language
in Europe,
scholars
Hebrew,
Coptic (
and
Egyptian Christian
in Coptic -
day,
he
church
and was
prepared
later
a
told that no one
himself
version
by learning
the Egyptian
of
In 1822 Champollion
services).
mystery of the ancient Egyptian language. When he deciphered the hieroThe
glyphs on the Rosetta Stone his discovery ushered in the era of modern Egyptology.
Rosetta Stone is on display at the British Museum in London.
the
unlocked
Rosewell (
ca.
1721 ca. 1740), Page
three stories
mansion,
do English
well to-
indicated
by
its
family
in height
houses
merchant
segmental
window
County. An imposing
building' s form was derived
home in Gloucester
a
full
of
the
over
cellar,
first
arches,
the
quarter
stone
of
the
eighteenth
dressings, fenestration
brick
from
century,
patterns,
as
and
proportions.
Mann Page I began
the tenure of
centered
hall
his
son
with
major
unusual arrangement
not
allow
for
construction of
Mann Page II.
public
and
throughout the course of the
a
flat
roof covered
nineteenth
century
Gloucester
County
with
and
lead
century.
and
within
are
23
Page' s
was
peers,
The
possibly because it did
spaces
as
they developed
further distinguished
two cupolas.
fire in 1916.
and
by
architectural
The house
graced with
by
Society
gutted
Historical
needs
probably not completed until
house included an off rooms on the first floor.
Its
of the
three other
and
was not emulated
private
was
The interior layout
minor stairs
apparently
vs.
house, but it
the
ruins
occasionally
Rosewell
was
have been
open
to
the
by
the use of
altered
stabilized
public.
in the
by
the
�Swiss born French
Rousseau, Jean Jacques ( 1712 1778),
At
theorist.
cal
Denis Diderot*
acquainted with
he
with whom
he left Geneva
age sixteen
author,
philosopher,
settled
and
in Paris
and
politi-
he became
where
eventually
joined the group of intellectuals writing the Encyclopedie,
Rousseau moved to the countryside in 1765, but his work
and
soon quarrelled.
controversy in France that he accepted David Hume' s* invitation to live in
up
England. Suspicious of everyone around him, Rousseau moved back to France in 1767 and
stirred
spent
such
Sciences
it
and
man' s
it
in Paris.
years
foremost
the
was
social
theorist of the
Man' s
natural
give
gradually
became
goodness
unwarranted
inequality
did
could return
not
believe
1762) he
based
men
offered
on
social
a
a
model
In
on
the
the nature of man and
of
individuals,
basic
man' s
Locke *, Rousseau
the
Law
and
a
one
state
to
and government worked
Rousseau
but in The Social Contract
equate
rested
sovereignty
argued
also
that
in
proposed
preparation
learned
children
to
manipulate
system
a
for
the general will with
the
with
people
their
through
reinforce
of
who
students'
of
to
citizenship.
senses from
In
experience,
highly
this
This
autobiography.
the
to
Following
tendencies.
natural
known for his Confessions ( 1782- 1789).
well
designed
education
republican
apology for his life, he created a new form
bridge from the eighteenth century Enlightenment
Servants,
was
property ownership.
of nature,
emotional
nineteenth
property
initial step
introduced.
an
was less
corrupting. Civil society was
up individual independence to live in
gave
government' s
Rousseau
goodness
teacher should
Rousseau is
happier
to a
wherein
his essay Emile ( 1762)
which
the notion of private
created to protect
In society
theories.
talent,
it.
withdraw
strengthen
Rousseau' s
of
differences in
society he believed
of
contract
obedience to the general will.
wishes
natural
compounded when
governments were
keystone
the
to
value
Thereafter, laws. and
could
A Discourse
century.
society. In
The Origin of Inequality ( 1754) Rousseau argued that society corrupted
essay
inherent goodness and that the more sophisticated the society, the more harmful
on
the
toward social
the
eighteenth
the Arts ( 1750) introduced his thoughts
and
was.
men
his final
most of
Rousseau
romantic
the
of
age
personal,
work was
a
early
century.
and
Slaves, Act
1705),
Concerning (
law
Virginia
seventeenth -
summarizing
century legislation on slaves and free blacks. The act codified earlier proscriptions against
Indians, Jews, " Mahometans," and blacks owning any white or Christian servant ( 1670);
interracial
prohibitions
on
dealing
runaways (
sion (
with
1682);
elimination
the
marriages
1670);
of
stripping
of prosecution
for
and
sex (
restrictions on
weapons (
killing
a
1691) ;
permitting
1680)
and
under
procedures
for
to gather without permis-
livestock ( 1692)
and
slave ' while
provisions
slaves
correction (
from
1669)
slaves;
the
in taking
or
1691) but making owners liable for damages done by slaves
1692); establishing corporal punishment for any black, slave or
free, who physically resisted any white ( 1680); declaring that children inherit the status of
their mothers ( 1662) and that baptism does not free the converted slave ( 1667) are among
The law also declared for
the important restatements appearing in the 1705 legislation.
1680
an
outlawed slave (
on
unsupervised quarters (
the
first time
Similar
that a slave' s presence
efforts
power over
and
to control
in England did
indentured
servants
them are major parts of this act.
and
not
bring
freedom.
define the limitations
The latter
provisions reveal
the
of a
master' s
different legal
of servant and slave clearly evident by the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Subsequent laws ( particularly in 1723 and 1748) also summarize and collate as well as
modify this and other legislation on slavery and free blacks.
status
Sheraton, Thomas ( 1751- 1806), English
possessed
great artistic
talent,
his life
cabinetmaker
was
and
furniture designer.
While he
poverty and disappointment because of
in London. From about 1793 he supported
one of
his eccentricity. About 1770 Sheraton settled
his family by publishing directories about cabinetmaking. The popular conception of the
M
Sheraton style is based on a book of designs, The Cabinet - aker and Upholsterer' s Drawing The delicate details he introduced have never been surpassed in English furniture
classic forms of Robert Adam* ar.
d
and his
early work was greatly influenced by the
Louis XVI style. Because it is of a later period, Sheraton' s influence was not seen in
Book.
design,
the
colonial
Virginia.
24
�Small, William ( 1734 -1775), influential
Moral
Williamsburg
Philosophy ( science
College' s instruction in Natural
take over the
Philosophy (
and
rhetoric,
ethics,
ment, he brought to his teaching
a great impression on his pupils.
belles lettres).
liberal
a
in 1758
to
came
College
the
at
professor
philosophical
Educated in Scotland, Small
Mary.
and
mind and a
As
an
of
way
William
of
and
mathematics)
and
apostle
Enlighten-
the
of
to
asked
and was
the world that made
viewing
Among them was Thomas Jefferson, whose intellectual
and enthusiasm for learning brought about a friendship between them and with
curiosity
Governor Francis Fauquier and the classical scholar and lawyer George Wythe. During
dinners
left
the
with
lasting
a
Jefferson,
on
the " system of things
in
William Small " fixed
the
Palace, they held
the
governor at
impression
In
placed."
which we are
destinies
profound philosophical
Small
who credited
local doctor
a
when
Public
against smallpox.
arrangements
ultimate
party.
postponement
When nothing
14.
previously
streets
during
Angry
Oyer
and
pro-inoculationists
the
with
drove
Terminer
issue
riot
the
next
latent
was
young Thomas Jefferson
year involved
basically the
tense
the
and
their
as
engaged
same
Williamsburg
the
and
a
June
on
June 25
as
through the
The
factions.
two
counsel
were
out,
pro-
A
cleared.
however, the inoculation
people;
with
relations
political
the
achieved
June 27 full scale rioting broke
complete with destruction to the inoculants' homes.
Throughout the summer court battles raged between
second
in
met
and
had been inoculated
those who
a thunderstorm to the pesthouse and on
inoculationists
were
three miles outside of
the court, the inoculations took place on
then
mobs
up
They
the magistrate to restrain
asked
and
met
of
heard from
was
planned.
Court
the
after
until
rose
Tanner Creek
on
plantation
a
on
inoculation.
against
group of friends and their families
but the gentlemen proceeded with
a
them,
sentiment was against
Factions opposing the practice
He refused.
Those in protest
town.
inoculate
to
wanted
be inoculated
to
that
my life."
of
Smallpox Riots ( 1768), Norfolk, Virginia, demonstrations
instigated
discussions
guiding him in his study of
tribute Jefferson declared that
with
England
becoming
were
more
predominant.
1790), Scottish moral
Smith, Adam ( 1723 lecturer at the University of Glasgow, and
determine
rational
and
order
within
in
purpose
moral
and
philosopher
a
chaotic
He
economist.
political
this wide-ranging
discipline he
was a
sought to
In 1776 his book The
world.
a
Wealth of Nations was published. It is a democratic philosophy of wealth — revolutionary
idea that held that wealth consists of goods which all members of society consume. This
laws of behavior:
the law of
philosophy of free trade is governed by two primary
Smith believed that as supplies of money,
accumulation and
the law of population.
machinery,
Virginia' s
colonial
Religious
for
freedom.
religious
Virginia
holds "
Assembly
demand,
and
supply
to societal
leaders. Jefferson
the
numbers
stated
tianity
This
Virginia ( 1786),
stated
in 1779, but it
statute
The disestablishment
and amended
the
full
ment
and
be free
of
equally
by James
the
economic
in
work
force,
harmony.
social
publicly
of
to profess, and
in
in
the
thinking
think
Smith' s
in 1776
and
later. The
for
key
provision
their opinions
argument maintain,
diminish,
bill
radical
introduced it in the
enlarge or affect
the ancient practice of state support
in
their civil
for Chris-
nonconformism.
of
the
article
began in
church
Virginia Declaration
Madison, this
complicated
by
no wise
Virginia' s Anglican
of
Thomas Jefferson' s
this principle
of
declares
to the
exercise of religion,
Assembly
and
economy, I
political
according
scaffolding of church
Williamsburg
Rights. Drafted
that " all men are
dictates
enacted a
bill for
by
equally
with
however,
entitled to
Dismantle-
required
an
law. In Octc ber 1776
the
establishment,
the wholesale revision of the state' s
25
in 1776
George Mason
of conscience."
complicated process of revision and enactment of statute
Virginia
join the
was reflected
was not enacted until seven years
dissolved forever
Article 16
free
that "
Freedom,
He first
penalization
the adoption of
would
extant."
matters of religion, and that the same shall
and
achieve
organization
best book
that all men shall
capacities."
of workers
This process would not
improved working conditions.
but would be self regulating through the forces of competi-
s rational approach
Wealth of Nations is
Statute
increased
and
control
through
and would,
Adam Smith'
grew,
wages
government
require
of
goods
higher
by
attracted
tion
and
laws
and
named
�Thomas Jefferson along with four others to undertake the revision.
an entire new code of laws, first debated in 1779. Bill number 82 in
Jefferson'
was
free.
and
Madison.
The
revolutionary
on
religious
republican
Their
Quakers, Methodists,
efforts
led
Assembly' s
Henry, came from those who believed
healthy religious organizations to be
needed
buried beneath
were
the
and
the
skillful
bill for
enactment of the
petitions
political
in Virginia society and prefigured the
freedom embodied in the First Amendment of
His early training
the
from
was
southern
painter
a
Rights.
of
boy
period
on a
painting trip
itinerant
of
painting in the colonies, Stuart avoided the war by going to London in 1775,
became Benjamin West' s* principal assistant.
Fame came to Stuart with his inspired portrait of The Skater, exhibited at
in 1782,
Academy
nately, Stuart' s
Reynolds*
to
equal
artistic genius was not matched
flee his London
to
him
ranked
which
by
returning home
creditors,
Revere,
to
View
the
of
Virginia' s delegates
to a
group
all
attendant
tions
s
Unfortu-
he
forced
painted
Washington, Martha
James Monroe, Paul
British America ( 1774), Jefferson'
of
and
s
instructions
proposed
First Continental Congress.
to the
at
It may have been first
the Peyton Randolph House. Central to the
1)
that (
convictions
rights
of civil
Rights
Virginia legislators
of
Jefferson'
were
including George
Dolley Madison,
Royal
the
painter was
where
he
John Adams.
and
Summary
financial acuity. The
America in 1793
portrait
where
Gainsborough.
and
to
portraits of many figures of the new republic
Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison,
a
policy
in Newport, Rhode Island.
who took the
After
James
marked
of a national
Bill
the
of
maneuvering
creation
was raised
Virginia.
including
colonies,
He
painter.
Cosmo Alexander,
Virginia Baptists,
of
freedom in 1786
religious
change
Stuart, Gilbert ( 1755 1828), American
through
Patrick
by
states
Presbyterians
and
this effort came
freedom.
religious
to this radical measure,
independent,
that even
stable
bill for
s
Opposition
From
the proposed new code
American
2)
prerogatives, (
3)
government, and (
the
colonial
colonists
colonies
assemblies
were
had
argument
freeborn Englishmen
to
equal
with
institu-
their own
established
were
presented
Parliament in their
powers.
It
deny Parliamentary power based upon the " rights of Englishmen," but
in A Summary View was something different. He reasoned that
had established themselves by their own exertions without material aid
to
was not new
Jefferson' s line
of argument
since the colonists
from
the
the crown,
legislature
other
they
of
any
The
part.
he
the
Jefferson
people,
the
the
laws,
to their
voluntarily
prerogative
king
that the
argued
by
subject
was
the
could exercise
appointed
consequently
to adopt such government and
however,
king,
sovereign so
people.
free
were
one part of the empire was not to
and
only insofar
circumscribed
He
as
as
more
with
also
it
they
saw
the
the
definite
listed
that
and
colonists
promoted the
than
fit
the government of
by
acknowledged
was " no
superintendence."
laws
interfere in
as
interests
chief officer
powers,
colonial
any
their
to
of
use,
grievances
of
the
and
from
time of settlement.
Viewing Jefferson' s A Summary View as too revolutionary, the Virginia Convention in Williamsburg adopted a different set of instructions for its delegates to a continental congress
claiming only the rights and privileges of British subjects. Nevertheless, A Summary View
was
in
printed
formulator
of
several
of
colonial
the colonies and
revolutionary
English
Tillotson, John ( 1630-1694),
attended
Cambridge
studies.
He
was
University
ordained
Presbyterians
until
teachers who
did
Act
the
not
English
and won
and (
for
churches
and
agree
a member of
the
brief
prominent
writer
and
Archbishop
of
Canterbury.
Tillotson
he eventually taught as well as pursued theological
Scottish bishop about 1661 and was identified with the
a
in 1662.
Uniformity
to
use
the
Tillotson
large
According
to this act
Book of Common Prayer
following
studied
would
the writings of the
as well as
Charles II for his
all
be
early
ministers and
expelled
church
from
fathers
clear, well reasoned,
his ability to counteract puritan ideas. He was
Church of England in the time of Charles II. Known
sermons as well as
liberal faction
Latitudinarians, they
the Puritans.
as
as a
where
schools.
the approval of a
that time)
by
of
in England marking Jefferson
thought.
of
opposed
the
the
doctrinal rigidity
26
of
both high
church
Anglicans
and
�Many years after Tillotson' s death, Virginia colonists such as William Byrd II and the
family in Williamsburg had volumes of his sermons in their libraries. One historian
Prentis
Archbishop
Tillotson " the most popular preacher of them all,"
noting that his works
nearly every southern colony. A favorite of monarchs William and Mary,
Tillotson aided James Blair* in
getting a charter for the College of William and Mary. He
was
of
Archbishop
Canterbury from 1691 until his death three years later.
calls
in
appear
Toleration, Act
1689),
legislation allowing Protestant dissenters from the Anglican
Baptists, Quakers, and Presbyterians) to
worship as they
pleased in premises licensed
Anglican bishops. Toleration was not extended to Roman
by
Catholics. Both Catholics and dissenters continued to be
barred from
of (
church ( nonconformists such as
effectively
holding
because of the Test Act ( 1673). It required officeholders to receive communion
according to Anglican doctrine, to swear allegiance to the monarch, and to affirm the
monarch' s
supremacy as head of the Church of England.
The first notice taken in Virginia of the Act of Toleration occurred in
1699 when the
General Assembly passed " An act for the more effectual
of
suppressing
Blasphemy, Swearing, Cursing, Drunkenness and Sabbath breaking," which included an exemption from
public office
for
penalties
Transfer
of
not
Day (
William
and
and
trustees
for
qualified
authority
seat
a
board
of visitors and governors.
College' s revenues, supervised expenditures, and
Once the College achieved its full complement of
were
to
representative
Throughout
Transfer
Day
be
to
dissenters.
Mary
were nominated to serve as the
professors and a president)
and
come
churches
controlled the
direction.
1729.
parish
1729), transference of
authority to the president and faculty of the College
Mary. In 1693 when the charter for the College of William and
was
granted, eighteen
They
Anglican
their
attending
the remainder
was celebrated as an
called,
into a cohesive
President and his colleagues, who would then
Burgesses. Transfer Day occurred on August 15,
and was organized
be transferred
in the House
inaccurately,
Voltaire ( 1694 1778), pen name
historian, and dramatist. He was
provided guidance
faculty ( six masters or
body, the charter, statutes,
to the
of
of
the eighteenth and on
important
Founder' s
day
Day.
into
in the College
the nineteenth
calendar.
By
century,
1777 it had
Francois Marie Arouet, French satirist, philosopher,
Jesuit College of Louis-le-Grand in Paris.
Eschewing a career in law, Voltaire gained early fame as a playwright and later as a
successful historian, biographer, and essayist.
His wit and
biting satires often earned
Voltaire the displeasure of those he attacked. He was imprisoned in the
Bastille at least
twice and was forced into exile to England between
1726 and 1729. Voltaire
eventually
found refuge in Lorraine and took
up residence in the court of Frederick the Great and
at Geneva before
moving to Ferney on the French Swiss border in 1758. This remained
his home until his death while
visiting Paris in 1778.
Voltaire
of
educated at the
was a rationalist whose goal was
to teach people to think
clearly. He admired
he believed allowed such rational
thinkers as John Locke* and Sir Isaac Newton to
In Lettres Philosophiques he
emerge.
introduced the French to English science and
philosophy. In 1738 he further popularized
the ideas of Isaac Newton in Elements de la
philosophie de Newton. Candide ( 1759), his best
known work today, is a satire on the optimistic
philosophy of Leibniz and also a call for a
the
personal
liberty
of
the
English
people,
which
practical
philosophy.
Although Voltaire was
noted anti Christian for his attacks on religious institutions,
intolerant and priest dominated, he was not an atheist. He so
strongly supported theism that he was viewed as a reactionary by some members of the
Enlightenment. Because he campaigned
tirelessly against tyranny, cruel punishment, and
fanaticism of all types, Voltaire was able to maintain his
of the Enlightenment
which
he
movement even as
the
late
a
characterized as
it
eighteenth
passed
from
leadership
the rationalism
he
embraced toward the romanticism of
century.
Walpole, Sir Robert ( 1676 1745), chief advisor and administrator to George I and George
II, 1721 -1742. Leader of the Whigs, twice chancellor of the
exchequer,
secretary of war,
and treasurer of the
navy, Walpole filled the position that was eventually to be called prime
minister.
He pursued a course of social and political
stability for Great Britain that
27
�included
the promotion of commercial
Walpole' s interest in
increase
duties
governor
the
internal
by
replaced
Evidence
because it transferred the taxes
bill,
excise
withdrew
be
to
were
finally
to extend
continued
by
paid
introduced in March 1733,
it. While this
fiscal
attempt at
financial
control
To
notice.
the
on
tobacco
prompted
Virginia
Planters favored
Assembly.
the planters to the
was greeted with
the state
expansion of
over
duties
excise
Walpole
suggests
British
hostility,
consumers.
Walpole
and
failed, Walpole' s
successors
colonies.
Walpole' s ministry fell in 1742 because of his mismanagement of
also because of generally corrupt methods, particularly in rigged
father
state.
his
to
proposed an excise scheme where complicated
in Great Britain.
retailed
brought Virginia
collection
William Gooch to introduce the idea to the General
proposal
The
tobacco
on
warehoused and
the
of
expansion
and
prosperity
revenue
discourage fraud, he
revenue and
customs
efficient
the
war with
Spain
He
elections.
and
the
was
Horace Walpole.
of author
Scottish
1819),
Watt, James ( 1736 -
engineer
inventor.
and
He
studied
mathematical
instrument making at the University of Glasgow. While there, he was asked to repair a
In 1765 Watt made the single most important
model of a Newcomen steam engine.
improvement to steam engines
developing the principle of a separate condenser. This
by
way
the cylinder could
cylinder,
be insulated
non - ondensable
c
gases
heat,
to retain
the steam condensed
the
and
out,
pumped
the
of
efficiency
of
outside
engine
the
greatly
increased.
into partnership with Matthew Boulton and began producing
In order for the engines to be more universally applicable,
In
a method needed to be found to convert the linear piston motion to a rotative motion.
steam engine that had steam alternately applied
1782 Watt introduced a double acting
In 1775 Watt
entered
large
steam engines on a
below
above and
be
scale.
to
a piston
inventing
credited with
engine,
steam
Other important inventions
engine and
of
horsepower, precisely defined.
London and Edinburgh.
English
Watt
hymn
most popular
quite
the
unlike
tender
faith,
stern,
serene
Before Watts' s
given
line
out
immediately
by
piety,
successful,
and
were
to
the
He
day.
was a
load
cannot
practical.
of an
speed
varied, a throttle valve, and
fellow
of the royal societies of
theologian, and one
nonconformist
the
both
of
the
hymn singing a strong, devotional force
of Calvinism.
Watts' s hymns dealt with
made
canticles
unemotional
works
line
clergyman,
his
the
it wholly
made
to regulate the
governor
a
even when
concept of
writers of
his improvements
Watt' s include
to produce an even motion
Watts, Issac ( 1674- 1748),
in both directions. While Watt
provide a power stroke
the
joyousness.
published,
his hymns
circulated
in
manuscript
and
were
When they appeared in print, they were
His major collecoutput of 500, 000 copies.
congregations.
reaching an annual
Spiritual Songs ( 1706)
Psalms of David ( 1719), together
and
responsible for the first children' s hymn
containing approximately 600 tunes. He was also
book, Divine and Moral Songs ( 1720). Many of his hymns are still in use, such as " Joy to the
World," " 0 God Our Help in Ages Past," and " When I Survey the Wondrous Cross."
tions
Hymns
were
and
1795), English
Wedgwood, Josiah ( 1730 -
fordshire
ware"
potters,
in the
he first
shape of various
potter and manufacturer.
acclaim
reached
fruits
a
with
and vegetables.
uniform
green
In 1762 his
Born to
glaze
him to
allowed
call
it " Queen' s Ware."
widely imitated. A 1771
successful and
The
inventory
of
family
of
experiments resulted
perfection of a cream colored earthenware, a set of which so pleased
she
a
Staf-
and " cauliflower
in the
Queen Charlotte that
colored
cream
the Raleigh
ware was
universally
Tavern lists Queen' s Ware
items.
In
1775 Wedgwood
achievements as
semi porcelain
it
perfected
body
that
can
ideal for bas relief decoration
Wedgwood
was sympathetic
American themes
design,
and
jasperware,
was the culmination
and
marketing
be
white
and
or
tinted with
considered
black
American Revolution,
His discoveries
techniques
he
one
of
his
greatest
Jasperware is
or various
pastel
hues
a
fine
and
is
cameos.
to the
patriots.
which
of extensive experimentation.
helped
and
understanding
revolutionize
28
and several of
the
pottery
of
his
works
depict
form, function,
industry.
�1791)
John ( 1703 -
Wesley,
In 1729
Methodism.
and
Oxford
at
students
Club) devoted to Bible study
insistence
the
at
to
upon
prevailed
Though
ordained
to
closed pulpits
Great
the
John
John
Wesley
Some of his more
Love Divine, All Love
writer.
Sing"
and "
Both John
1768, " If
you
desire ...
ministry, salvation by
themes in their preaching.
of
was
to
went
study.
In 1763 West
painter and
he
studying
lacking in formal
New York in 1759;
was
a year
conversion
no
and
consciousness,
in
wrote
than ` faith
less
nor
more
many American
Rembrandt Peale.
to
and reason
he had
West began to
sold several canvases
later,
twenty-
in London
Stuart *,
develop
one,
at age
and
his
he
became
Copley *,
Trumbull,
of
to
historical
Arts
1792,
by
Sully,
natural poses,
more
Charles
original-
teacher as well as one of
was an exceptional
Rome
to
official
and
style
own
went
Academy
Because he brought
John
studied with
the Royal
was president of
and
painting, he
twelve
age
William Williams. He later
received
enthusiastically
artists:
taught
By
painter.
education.
friend to George III. He
Willson Peale *,
ity,
had
and
social
George Whitefield*
it is
Methodism ...
with artist
art genre after
Wollaston but
where
their own salvation
with
faith,
1820), American
West, Benjamin ( 1738 -
ultimately
of
love.'"
by
the folk
Charles that
Thousand Tongues to
a
Excelling."
concerned
definition
a
preaching
itinerate style
the
and
preacher
familiar hymns include " 0 for
their
prominent
were
repentance
were
Throughout
experiences.
working
Charles
and
the role of
assumed
colonies.
of
methods
ministry in
their
continued
they
were
missionaries
to the
visit
only
of their
two
the
to act as
and
their
was
disapproval
church,
Charles but
and
colony
of
society
of
piety
promotion
Georgia,
of
governor
1737
trip in 1736 -
This
in the Anglican
Awakening.
hymn
Oglethorpe,
James
of
religious
a
the
and prayer and
to the spiritual needs of the
minister
displaced Indian tribes.
to the
of
formed
founders
and
evangelists
University they
morality.
Later,
of
Holy
the
nicknamed
English
Charles ( 1707- 1788),
and
as
America' s Old
Masters.
1770), English
Whitefield, George ( 1714 revival movement
1730s
Whitefield
highly
whose
He
1738.
in
later
University,
extremely popular during the
the American colonies in the
earned
them the
brothers' "
Wesley*
derisive
name "
Holy
Method-
by
most
Anglican
pulpits.
preached
to
his
that
Whitefield
embarked again
Virginia
including
Bruton Parish Church
at
for America
few
a
his way to Georgia. During
the invitation of Commissary
on
at
December 14, 1739.
spent
individual
emotion.
he joined the
where
habits
deacon in 1736, Whitefield joined the Wesleys as a missionary to Georgia
a
Whitefield began open - ir
1739.
ordained
an Anglican priest in
his superiors. Thereafter,
was soon threatened with excommunication
the
remainder
of
his life
England, preaching the " new light"
powerful
was
swept
a
on
Whitefield
each
He
that
Awakening*
and visited several colonies
James Blair*
and
evangelist.
structured religious
trip, Whitefield
this
Great
was
preaching and
he was barred from
months
Oxford
attended
Ordained
ists."
as the
1740s.
and
Club,"
known
audiences,
Whitefield
which
continued
to
to
large
included
frequently
preach
until
between the American
crowds.
He
His preaching
in Jesus.
rebirth
a
experience
journeying
message
slaves,
stressed
so
was
colonies
the need
responded
for
and
exciting
great
with
his death in Newburyport, Massachusetts,
in 1770.
Wilkes, John (
America he
distinction
was
by
1727- 1797),
as
a
English
symbol
for
king
attacking
The North Briton.
the
and
politician
and ministers
journalist.
rights
constitutional
in
and
In
both
He
freedoms.
several virulent articles
England
came
to
and
this
that appeared
in
and
subsequently arrested and imprisoned
Parliament. In 1768 he was reelected to the House of Commons
eventually lost his seat in
This apparent arbitrary
as representative of Middlesex County but was denied his seat.
the
and his supporters rallied the populace of both England
treatment of Wilkes
his
periodical
by
and
America
effect
mind
on
his behalf.
Wilkes
king
During
this
was
period
he
won
several popular
trials that
had
the
fortune but also reaffirmed in the popular
of not
only allowing him to reclaim his
Because so many people felt that his constituthe constitutional liberties of man.
29
�had been
tional rights
Wilkes
He eventually did
London, reconciling
Wollstonecraft,
her
1797) , English
1759 friends
and
sister
to the cause of
liberty.
later became Lord Mayor
and
of
king.
the
with
martyr
was considered a virtual
cause.
Middlesex in Parliament
represent
Mary (
of
experiences
he
violated,
American
the
supported
as
She drew
feminist.
writer and
material
for her
writings
that
the tragic
upon
focused
the
on
After witnessing her father' s abuse of her mother and her
brother -n -aw' s abuse of her sister, she published the Wrongs of Women. The death of a
i l
Thoughts on the
close friend in childbirth became the subject for a pamphlet entitled
Education of Daughters. In 1792 she published her most successful piece, Vindication of The
Woman. Her first marriage ended in 1796 as a result of her husband' s infidelity.
Rights
education and rights of women.
of
The
William Godwin
next year she married
died in
Wollstonecraft is described
an
as an "
impulsive
A follower
manner."
and
of person
of
months pregnant and
and enthusiastic woman, with
Rousseau *,
of
later
she appears to
have
great charms
the role
assumed
century " feminist."
eighteenth -
Wren, Sir Christopher ( 1632- 1723), English
London in
baroque
the
in 1653,
he
when
as a
there served
was
place
meeting
fire
period of scientific
a
took the chair of
instrumental in
astronomy
for
the
Royal
1666.
of
Wren finished
study.
at
men such as
founding
Wren is best known for rebuilding
Architecture, however, was his
architect.
the great
after
style
following
second career,
group
four
she was
when
childbirth.
at
Oxford
University
Gresham College in London. His rooms
Boyle *, and Evelyn. This
Newton,
Halley,
Wren
Society.
served
as
its
from
president
1680 to 1682.
In 1660 Wren became
career
astronomy at Oxford. The next year he made his
Charles II asked him to be Surveyor General of his
that destroyed medieval London in September 1666
of
professor
to architecture when
change
Majesty' s
Wren
The tragic fire
Works.
provided
Before the fire
with
was
the
opportunity
thoroughly
to
quenched
become
an
immortal
of
English
architecture.
for rebuilding
half century Wren designed not only St. Paul' s
six of the companies' halls, the customs
Wren had
shown
king
the
plans
redesigning the city plan. Over the next
Cathedral, but over fifty parish churches, thirtyand
house,
he
and several private
rebuilt
the
houses,
Marlborough House.
including
Between 1670
and
1672
Temple Bar.
knighted in 1672 and served as a member of Parliament on several occasions.
influence reached outside London, including the Ashmolean
Oxford in 1683, additions to Inigo Jones' s Greenwich Hospital, the Chelsea
Museum in
Hospital, and modifications and additions to Hampton Court.
It is unlikely that with so many official duties for the king Wren designed the new
College of William and Mary in Virginia; it is possible, however, that one of his deputies
Wren
His
was
official commissions and
designed
the
College in
a
adaptation
modest
1746),
Zenger, John Peter ( 1697 -
Wren'
of
classical
s
German-born American
printer
baroque
and
style.
In
journalist.
anti-administration editor and printer opposed
early 1730s he was established as the
New York governorship of William Cosby. In 1734 he was held
his reporters for the New York Weekly Journal.
articles written
by
seditious
defense
Zenger
libel
and
was
conduct
and
set
jailed. The
the
found
of public
trial raised the
precedent
not
guilty
of
of
issue
giving juries,
libel.
The
of whether
not
Zenger
in the
polemical
arrested
libel
final say in
right
for
was
the truth of a
the court,
trial resulted
responsible
for
was a valid
such
to criticize
the
to the
matters.
freely
the
men.
Zenger eventually became
public
printer
for New York
30
and
later for New
Jersey
as well.
�A Word
Teamwork
made
this a
senting
Education, Liza Gusler, Department
I
worked on
graciously
and
the project as a
willingly
proofing, critiquing,
offered
and
of
their time
Laura Arnold
forty-eight
individuals
of
Collections, Linda Rowe, Department
committee and would
production
than
Mark Howell, Department
departments have been involved.
eleven
and
No fewer
project.
successful
Thanks
of
of
and
this
like
to thank the
through the
expertise
repre-
Interpretive
of
Research,
following
who
so
researching, writing,
publication:
Leviner
Mildred Arthur
Betty
Mary
Deanne
Jim McDonald
Bailey
Masengale
Milton
John Barrows
Nancy
Barbara Beaman
Michael L. Nicholls
Kent
Brinkley
Dennis O' Toole
Judy
Burrows
Lin Pearson
Emma Powers
Kevin Bushee
Kathy
Susan Pryor
Carr
Frank Clark
Bobbie Sanders
Cynthia Cobb
Anne Schone
David DeSimone
Robin Scouse
Betsy
Donna Sheppard
Drumbore
Virginia Sites
Heidi Eger
Merry
Feyock
J.
Douglas Smith
Liz Gariti
Sue Smith
Conny Graft
Cathy Hellier
Wendy Howell
Jane Strauss
Sandra Johnson
Angela Watson
Laurie Suber
Darci Tucker
Lisa Kause
Mark R. Wenger
Kevin
Anne Willis
Kelly
Bettye Jean Lendrim
I hope
efforts
of
all readers of this special
those
mentioned
above.
issue
They
of
the
interpreter
deserve
Mary
praise
appreciate,
for
a
job
as we
well
do, the
done.
Jamerson,
Project Coordinator
Department
31
of
Interpretive Education
creative
�
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/d4c1bf38872e75cecb05e85838fb95d9.jpg?Expires=1712793600&Signature=m8ocTEiooq6KVOvfMe4AXTIN6Gk1-WVVx6KmUUJOgx69DkOuFyfDT0dtJZTBDFoHuudV10jMZRPbZPRkZEeMPUbLq%7Em9eznzlwEYPBaDUGtNb7IoT83BIQw4hCVwq-DqOUEwcQH%7EcZx%7E1rbDs4yRYfUQz1r1VRJyo4RhYj0gC5%7EvsmQ0b-N4n0kyd5iXZH3FhYy7cWWlFi4aQ33DULrtzNvqOm1BuTG%7EC6%7Ek2kz2xNT0qmR7yq7JUDudupY7LpIAoiSfvpIgxmnZYOdLeW32KFZniCgLRVTsjzrGi9-9wBeyZjmIV6qXzal7MXjLXKVve6BXx7otFCPo9oOhruAiVg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
8f09ad341f102c9be746b365d0ef6ac7
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century
Description
An account of the resource
"A Special Publication of the Colonial Williamsburg interpreter"
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/a86ee8d720f8ff29d358faf489d1bcbb.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=WpTuXtAP6jO4DXIm0NVnvv8QcOlbsXBF8TgbeOHBY7ZEh-6pTHadCgr5Z-HepOI0wT3Y5yj97I3IfPd8WrG9IoNzkwZ-%7ENcKeQ2OhV56ylqIDoey7PZ8fq7eu5a3fmjTMGLokiLJpSAV3wiprDuu-9KMh0TprDQJWa8J4qCaDMUZ1o1E3cB2Uu7kGsx5XWBMSv%7EVmS5snN0w8fk%7ECBbftzxbpebtyRHci2uuYb1Uq7h4HV-iyIy53Gagbuai1c1tRWM3mP7TP25Wm7-l-nyzP9vvXgYtSt-r7XEdwyTdHAmMr9swMiOfEUMa5lrfmByPH-dVS3oCVV1qZ8pc1Ymawg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
c60a9abd0ce7fbd7f47a9631b6f95c48
PDF Text
Text
COLONIAL
WILLIAMSBURG
VOL. 30, NO. 1
SPRING 2009
As the Dust Settles: An Update from the Department of
Architectural and Archaeological Research
More than Memory: Representing an
abundance of artifacts from the twentieth cen-
African American Neighborhood at
tury, scrutiny has turned towards this period of
site occupation. This overview presents some
the Ravenscroft Site
of the preliminary findings uncovered in the
ongoing historical studies that are integral to
by Ywone Edwards- Ingram
the archaeological investigations.
Ywone is a staff archaeologist in the Department of
Architectural and Archaeological Research.
In the twentieth century, mainly in the first
half, African Americans and their families
lived and operated businesses on or adjacent
to the archaeological site described above. The
Introduction
block boasted structures such as a large board-
Since 2006, archaeologists from the Colo-
nial Williamsburg Foundation and students
from College of William and Mary have been
ing house called the Crump Hotel, a barber
shop, a pool room, and the Union Baptist
Church. Other structures significant to life
excavating the Ravenscroft site. The site bears
on the block included the James City County
the name of one of its eighteenth- century
Training School ( 1924 -1940) situated across
owners, Thomas Ravenscroft, and is located at
from the site on Botetourt Street; and towards
the northwest comer of Nicholson and Bote-
the north, the Mount Ararat Baptist Church
tourt streets in a section of the Historic Area
organized in 1882), in its same location as
now designated Block 28. 1 While excavations
at this site have mainly concentrated on an
eighteenth century cellar previously uncovered
in 1954 and 1998, the site material assemblages
also represent a later African American neigh-
borhood of the twentieth century. Research
today at the comer of Botetourt and Franklin
streets.3 The church moved from its location
on Francis Street into this building in the early
1930s.4
By the 1930s, the re -birth of Williamsburg
as the colonial capital of Virginia had started
has focused on African Americans at the site
to erode the physical structure of the African
during the eighteenth century;2 but with the
American neighborhood, evident in changes
on the Ravenscroft block. The Williamsburg
Holding Corporation of the restoration ac-
Also in this issue .. .
quired and demolished buildings in the area,
Coffee, Tea, Chocolate: Not Just For Breakfast"
by S. Cotner
7
New at the Rock" by D. Mayo
9
Q & A"
14
and the occupants were
moved to other parts
of Williamsburg. The process of displacing
individuals and demolishing structures continued during the 1950s and impacted not only
African Americans but whites as well in vari-
ous sections of the area that became Colonial
Of the Greatest Advantage': A Brief
History of Eyeglasses through the Eighteenth
Williamsburg.
Century" by S. Pryor
17
Bothy's Mould: Dung" by W. Greene
19
Cook's Corner: Some More Fun Things to Do
With Your Food" by J. Gay
24
The Historical Evidence
Inquiries into archival and historical data,
including oral history accounts at repositories
of the Foundation and the College, have re-
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
2
This is an aerial view of the African American neighborhood in the late 1920s showing areas close to the Nicholson
and Botetourt Streets intersection. The James City County Training School is very large building in the foreground;
the two -story Crump hotel with its four chimneys is towards the west while the Union Baptist Church is across the
street behind the school.
sulted in more information to help guide the
Ravenscroft study and to better understand the
African American community in Williamsburg
during a period of upheaval and change caused,
more or less, by the Restoration.5 Several documents, including land title and deed abstracts,
interview transcripts
and other recollections
of Williamsburg residents, city and county
directories, early twentieth century maps, and
photographs of buildings
and street scenes
century. Both Samuel Harris and his wife, Joanna B. Harris, owned land on the Ravenscroft
block perhaps as early as the late nineteenth
century.? Before the Restoration, many African Americans were located on streets within
and nearby the now Historic Area of Colonial
Williamsburg. The Directory of 1898 also lists
members of this group as barbers, carpenters,
cooks, clerks, drivers, farmers, fishermen, green
grocers, laborers, merchants, painters, plaster-
are providing information about this section
ers, porters, restaurant proprietors, shoemakers,
of an African American district that had featured a mixture of homes, social venues, and
business places. The conversion of this block,
teamsters, teachers, waiters, wheelwrights, and
now known as the Ravenscroft site, into a pre-
information about both public buildings and
dominantly African American neighborhood
private
appears to have either started or accelerated in
century century occupation of the Ravenscroft
the first quarter of the twentieth century when
white land owners sold lots to Williamsburg
residents with surnames like Crump, Epps, Har-
block by African Americans. To date, more is
ris, and Braxton.
the block delineated by Botetourt Street on the
merchants.
Preliminary historical research has provided
residences
related
to
the
twentieth -
known about four public buildings than about
other structures, that once stood on the sides of
Members of these African American families
east and Nicholson Street on the south. The
had lived or owned property on the nearby main
findings from historical research on the Crump
Hotel, the Braxton property, a barber shop, a
street, " Gloucester Street," now returned to its
eighteenth- century name as Duke of Gloucester
Street. A Directory and Handbook of the City
of Williamsburg and the County of James City,
pool room, and the Union Baptist Church are
Virginia, published in 1898, 6 shows residents
The Crump Hotel
Thomas Crump as a " barber" and Peter Epps
as a " cook at the Inn" on this street. Samuel
Harris is listed as a " wholesale merchant" in the
Directory and was the owner of the prominent
Harris' Cheap Store in the late nineteenth
presented below.
The Crump Hotel is mainly associated with
Harriet Crump and was likely constructed after
1905,
when she and her husband Thomas
Crump acquired land on the Nicholson Street
�Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
side of the block and made financial arrange-
ments for its improvement. 8 The hotel may
have functioned
3
I give and bequeath to my dear daughter in -law Roselia Crump my house and the lot
as a place where African
upon which it stands, with all of my personal
Americans could stay as long -time boarders
including his grandmother's husband, E. Francis, may have shared the work of running this
facility.9 Preston Crump was born in November
property, and at her death to be divided
between my two grand children, Lillie M.
Crump, Price, and George Crum[p] Jr.
Again I bequeath to E. Francis my husband
5. 00 an expression of my love and respect.
I further request that my lodge the Mount
Ararat No. 155 of the Independent order of
Good Sameritans &
daughters of Samaria
shall out of the funds allowed me, under the
1910 and as a child, had lived on Nicholson
direction of my Executors burry me. 12
rather than as short term residents. In a 1984
interview conducted as part of an Oral History
Project for the James City County Historical
Commission, Preston Crump, the grandson of
Harriet Crump, suggested that male relatives,
Street. Based on Preston Crump's description,
the hotel was a large two story structure with
eleven rooms and a front porch.
It] had two kitchens, kitchen on one side,
kitchen, a dining room, and a living room
on one side of the house. And on that same
side was three bedrooms upstairs, over top of
Harriet Crump was probably a member of
Mount Ararat Baptist Church, based on simi-
larity of the name of her benevolent society,
Mount Ararat No. 155, and the church. At
that time, the church was located on Francis
Street in a building that may have also served
as a school for African American children from
there. Then on the other side was a large din-
1883 to 1885. 13 Mrs. Crump's connection to
ing room and a kitchen, and three bedrooms
the church is further suggested from her will
upstairs on that side. It was five downstairs
of 1923 in which she named Reverend L. W.
and six up, so that made eleven rooms. 1°
Wales as her executor. According to the Directory of 1898, L. W. Wales, a " preacher" was living on Francis Street. This reference appears to
Harriet Crump died in April 1923 leaving
the property to her relatives. 11 Her will, dated
February 16, 1923, and probated on April 21,
1923, states:
be for Reverend L. Wales, Sr., who was born in
1860 and died in 1927. His son, L. W Wales, Jr.
The Mount Ararat Baptist Church at the corner of Franklin and Botetourt streets is an African American landmark.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
4
was appointed as one of the appraisers of Har-
The Barber Shop and
riet Crump's personal estate. L. W. Wales, Jr. accepted leadership of Mt. Ararat Baptist Church
Pool Room Buildings
after his father' s death, he is also identified as a
negotiator for the relocation of the Church to
its Franklin Street location.14 An inscription
on a corner stone of the Mount Ararat Baptist
Church dates the structure to 1932.
Archival documents indicate that the hotel
property was out of the Crump family's ownership for many years before Colonial Williamsburg acquired it on August 28, 1949. 15 The
Crump hotel building was demolished by July
1951. 16
A barber shop and a pool room on the Botetourt Street side of the block are linked to Peter
Epps and his wife Mollie Epps. On August 6,
1927, the Eppses purchased land in this vicin-
ity.22 Recall that the Directory of 1898 listed
Peter Epps, as a " cook at the Inn," on Gloucester Street. Extant buildings on Block 28 were
probably converted to provide the appropriate
settings for the barber shop and pool room. A
1921 fire insurance map of Williamsburg by
the Sanborn Map Company depicts two unnamed structures in this location on Botetourt
The Braxton Property
William Braxton owned property on the Ravenscroft block in the early twentieth century.
Street. Another Sanborn map in 1929 shows
these buildings as a " Pool Room" and a " Bar-
ber," respectively. Supporting evidence for the
re -use of one of these structures comes from a
On April 20, 1907, Eugene Potts conveyed land
letter written in July 1933, on file at the Colo-
to him and the property is described as:
Fronted 50 feet on the north side of Nicholson Street, running back between parallel
lines and bounded as follows: South by
Nicholson Street, west by property of the
grantor [ Eugene Potts], east by the property
of Harriet Crump, and north by the property
nial Williamsburg Foundation' s archive, which
ofJoanna B. Harris. 17
Mr. Braxton and Harriet Crump were neigh-
described the barber shop that was vacant at
the time as a house that was once used for this
purpose. 23
Both the pool room and the barber shop
probably featured enormously in the social life
of this African American neighborhood. Tra-
ditionally, barber shops and pool rooms were
meeting places, primarily for males, where key
bors, and the name Braxton is associated with
topics on the public agenda were discussed, pri-
the Crump family in other documents. William
vate information shared, and where customers
H. Braxton is listed as one of the witnesses to
relaxed and socialized. The Epps Family is also
Harriet Crump's will of February 1923, and he
was also named, along L.W. Wales, Jr., as an ap-
associated with the Crumps for, in his interview
in 1984, Preston Crump related that Molly
praiser of her estate. 18 In his interview, Preston
Mollie) Epps was his aunt and that she had
Crump remembered a Mr. Braxton staying ( ap-
a restaurant on Gloucester Street. This would
parently as a boarder) at the Crump residence
indicate that the Eppses' history of providing
services to the community predates their busi-
before Braxton bought the house next door.19
Mr. Crump's recollections of Mr. Braxton relate
to the time when he ( Preston Crump) was a
small boy" in the years following 1910. If this
nesses on the Ravenscroft block.
Mr. Braxton was the same individual as William
building" by 1933, and it was demolished in
Braxton, he may have lived with the Crump
family before he moved to a house on his property on the block.
the same fate during the 1930s. Today, a large
headstone in the Cedar Grove Cemetery in the
On October 6, 1932, William Braxton, " un-
property" he had purchased from Eugene Potts to Tempy Sparrow.
The property passed into the hands of Clyde
C. Hall by December 28, 1934. Clyde Hall and
his wife, Beulah B. Hall, conveyed the property
to Colonial Williamsburg Incorporated by a
deed dated, January 23, 1950. At that time,
married, conveyed the ...
G.T. Brooks and Charlotte S. Brooks, his wife,
rescinded their interest in this property20. A
building on Block 28 called the Brooks -Hall
property was demolished in December 1950.21
By March 1932, the Eppses had sold their
land. The pool room was considered an " old
1934. 24 The barber shop may have suffered
City of Williamsburg commemorates the Epps
Family of the Ravenscroft block ( Peter Epps
1864 - 1939 and Mollie Epps 1868 - 1956).
The Union Baptist Church
The Union Baptist Church was located on
the northwest side of Botetourt Street at the
intersection with Franklin Street. A deed dated
April 21, 1905, mentions a lot within this vicin-
ity as " contracted to be sold to Union Baptist
Church. " This suggests that the church was
25
established at least on or prior to this date. The
�5
Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
building was probably constructed closer to the
upwards of 2, 000 delegates" and had " Historic
1905 date rather than to the time when it was
Tours of Williamsburg and Jamestown" on its
recorded on a 1921 fire insurance map of Williamsburg by the Sanbom Map Company.
agenda.28
The African American neighborhood that
While various African American structures
included the Ravenscroft site was not just a
were being removed from the block, activities
physical manifestation of structures but an
continued at the Union Baptist Church. There
intricate social network of people and social
are photographs of the church in the late 1950s;
practices that extended beyond place and time.
it was probably destroyed by the early 1960s. A
Thus, even when buildings were demolished
Union Baptist Church congregation now meets
and occupants relocated, the neighborhood as
in the community of Highland Park, near Colonial Williamsburg.
Summary
The life histories of African Americans on
part of a wider community" was still viable as
more than memory. Archaeological and historical evidence are key elements connecting the
African American community with Colonial
Williamsburg.
the Ravenscroft block in the twentieth century
are linked with each other and to structures
that were located on the site and nearby areas.
With the removal of
homes, businesses, and
social venues from the area, the remaining
churches continued to draw members of the
African American community and other groups
to this part of the town for regular and special
events. Two special events, the Virginia Gazette
1 See http: //research .history.org /Ravenscroft /; Kathryn
Sikes and Meredith Poole, " Ravenscroft Revisited: Consid-
ering interpretive strategies in light of architectural features
and documentary evidence." Paper presented at the Society
for Historical Archaeology Meeting, Albuquerque, New
Mexico, 2008.
2 Ibid.; http:// research .history.org /ravenscroft /historyJenny.cfm
thought worthy to note, were the Union Baptist
3 Linda Rowe, " African Americans in Williamsburg,
Church's connection with a census that was
1865- 1945." In Robert P. Maccubbin, ed., Williamsburg,
being conducted under the auspices of researchers from the College of William and Mary and
Virginia: A City Before the State 1699- 1999. Williamsburg,
Va.: The City of Williamsburg distributed by the University
a conference that was held at Mount Ararat
Baptist Church. On March 16, 1948, a training
Press of Virginia, 2000, pp. 124, 128; L. W. Wales, Brief
Autobiographical Sketch of the Life and Labors of Rev. L. W.
Wales. D. D....
Brief Historic Outline of Mt. Ararat Baptist
meeting for the canvassers for a religious census
Church, Williamsburg, Virginia, Sermons, Addresses, &
of the African American churches of Williams-
burg was held at the Union Baptist Church and
another meeting was planned for March 22. 26
In November of the same year, the Virginia
Gazette reported on the conference of a notable
African American organization that convened
at Mount Ararat Baptist Church. This meeting
included public officials such as Williamsburg
mayor, H. M. Stryker, superintendent of schools
J. Rawls Byrd, and Dr. Joseph E. Barrett, Direc-
c.
Williamsburg, Va.: n. p., 1910, p. 11.
4 Rex M. Ellis. " The African- American Community
in Williamsburg, 1947 -1998." In Maccubbin, ed., Williamsburg, Virginia, pp. 231 -232; Rowe, " African Americans in
Williamsburg, 1865 -1945," p. 128.
5 These include the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
Archives and Records Department ( Colonial Williamsburg
Archives); John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; and Special Collections, Earl Gregg
Swem Library, College of William and Mary; and the Clerk's
Office, Williamsburg James City County Courthouse.
tor of Mental Health and Hygiene for Virginia
6 A Directory and Handbook of the City of Williamsburg
as participants. This was a three -day meeting
of the " Negro Organization Society," a Virginia
and the County of James City, Virginia. Williamsburg, Va.:
Virginia Gazette, [ 1898], pp. 28, 30.
organization that was established in 1909 under
7 Abstract of Tide by Ashton Dovell for Williamsburg
the leadership of Robert R. Moton of Hampton
Holding Corporation, March 1932 /April 21, 1932, [ Block
28, Epps], Colonial Williamsburg Archives; Abstract of
Institute ( now Hampton University) "
in re-
Title by C.V. Spratley, Jr., for Colonial Williamsburg, Inc.,
sponse to an earnest popular demand for closer
December 7, 1948 [ Block 28. No. 1, Crump Hotel], Colonial Williamsburg Archives.
attention to the needs of the race along lines of
health and education, especially in the public
8 Ibid.
schools and among the masses. "27 The Negro
9 Interview of Preston Crump by Robinette Fitzsim-
Organization Society often hosted African
mons, October 20, 1984. James City County Oral History
American educator and founder of Tuskegee
Collection, 1983 -1986. Special Collections, Earl Gregg
Swem Library, College of William and Mary, p. 18.
Institute, Booker T. Washington, as a speaker
at its annual meetings. With a theme of "Con-
tinuous Community Growth through Renewed
and Cooperative Effort," the conference drew
10 Ibid., pp. 18, 42.
11 Will Book 3, City of Williamsburg, Va., Williamsburg - ames City County Courthouse, p.83.
J
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
6
12 Ibid.
13 Wales, Brief Autobiographical Sketch; Rowe, " African
Americans in Williamsburg, 1865 - 1945," p. 123.
14 Ellis, " The African- American Community in Williamsburg," pp. 231 -232; Ed Belvin, Growing Up in Williamsburg: From the Depression to Pearl Harbor. Williamsburg, Va:
The Virginia Gazette, Inc., 1981, pp. 94 -95; Wales, Brief
Autobiographical Sketch, p. 2.
15 Abstract of Title, Crump Hotel.
16 Letter, Monier Williams to A. E. Kendrew, July 12,
1951, Colonial Williamsburg Archives.
21 Letter, H. O. Bebe to A. E. Kendrew, December 13,
1950, Colonial Williamsburg Archives.
22 Abstract of Title, Epps.
23 Letter, Harvey Johnson to Williamsburg Holding
Corp., July 6, 1933, Colonial Williamsburg Archives.
24 Letter, R. L. Rice to V. M. Geddy, Williamsburg, Va.,
September 12, 1933; letter,
Holland to
Brown,
October 30, 1934, Colonial Williamsburg Archives.
25 Abstract of Title, Epps.
26 The Virginia Gazette, March 19, 1948, p. 24, cols. 2
and 3.
17 Abstract of Title by C. V. Spratley, Jr., for Colonial
27 The Southern Workman, Vol. XL ( August 1911): 455;
Williamsburg, Inc., January 26, 1950 [ Block 28, No.2,
August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880 -1915. Ann
Brooks -Hall], Colonial Williamsburg Archives.
18 Will Book 3, p. 83.
19 Preston Crump interview, pp. 41 -42.
20 Abstract of Title, Brooks -Hall.
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1964, p. 123.
28 The Virginia Gazette, November 12, 1948, p. 22,
col. 4.
�Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
7
Coffee, Tea, Chocolate: Not Just For Breakfast
by Sharon Cotner
Sharon is an apothecary in the Pasteur & Galt Apothecary Shop.
By the eighteenth century, coffee, tea, and
lence, and promote the menses. It was also con-
chocolate had become incorporated as part of
sumed to stimulate the appetite, assist digestion
the common aliment in Great Britain and the
after a large meal, and relieve flatus. Dr. David
colonies. These three exotic plants were gener-
Macbride prepared a decoction of raw coffee
ally promoted as wholesome beverages; how-
berries boiled in water to break apart and bring
ever, not everyone looked upon their regular
away urinary calculi ( solid particles or stones in
consumption with favor. In 1722 an unknown
author wrote "never was a better State of Health
the urinary system). Landon Carter was familiar with Macbride's work, and in July 1774 he
enjoyed, than by our ancestors, when the Toast
ordered a similar treatment for a slave believed
and good Beer went round for Breakfast in a
to be suffering from bladder stones. ( There is no
Morning, before ever Tea, Coffee, Chocolate or
mention in Carter's diary of the outcome.)
other new Inventions came in. " Yet the more
1
What has been said of coffee was also applied
these stimulating liquids were indulged in, the
more they were recommended for their benefi-
to tea. Accordingly, it was used to revive the
cial qualities.
spirits, remove sleepiness, aid digestion, cure
headaches, relieve cold symptoms, and provoke
Coffee was viewed as the most medicinal of
urine. Tea was also supposed to prevent bladder
these substances. It was commonly prescribed
for all " sleepy disorders" to raise the spirits,
stones and gravel. In The Good and Bad Effects
sharpen the wit, and rouse the dull. Because of
of Tea Consider' d, Simon Mason noted " the Reason, why the Gout and Stone are unknown in
its antihypnotic qualities, Dr. Richard Pearson
China, is ascribed to the Use of this Plant. "
3
employed coffee to " counteract and correct the
There was a harmful side to these drinks,
narcotic effects of opium," 2 and for the same
too. It was observed that coffee was safe for most
reason it was taken after a debauch of strong
liquors to ease nausea, weakness, and swooning
fits. In addition, it was highly regarded as a treat-
constitutions but hurtful to those who were
ment for headaches and migraines.
Coffee was recognized as an excellent diuretic, and mild cathartic; therefore drunk to
pregnant women were advised to avoid it. Over-
relieve dropsy ( fluid retention), decrease corpu-
terica ( tuberculosis of the
thin, lean, dry, and of a bilious ( peevish) disposition. People suffering from bleeding piles and
indulgence in tea was linked to many children's
disorders especially hydrocephalus, tabes mesenmesenteric glands),
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
8
and rickets, but in 1753 Dr. William Cullen
relieved dry, rough skin, cutaneous eruptions,
wrote that the medical effects associated with
and itches.
this beverage " depend more on the quantity of
warm fluid, than any particular qualities which
ity to raise the spirits and therefore given in
it gains from the tea. "4 Numerous other side
melancholic disorders. Perhaps, this is also what
effects were attributed to consuming great quantities of these substances. In 1775 Dr. Thomas
rodisiac. Pierre Pomet wrote that consumption
Withers reported that "Tea and coffee taken too
Finally, chocolate was recognized for its abil-
led to one of its most infamous uses as an aph-
of chocolate would " stimulate to Venery causing Procreation and Conception [ and] facilitate
freely can produce indigestion, acidity, heartburn, spasmodic pains of the alimentary canal,
watchfulness, tremors, feebleness, irritability,
delivery. "
8
and dejection of spirits. "5
caffeine is one of the main active ingredients in
Esteemed more for its nutritional virtues,
chocolate was described as strengthening, restorative, and fattening and given to preserve
health, repair weak constitutions, and fortify
From a modem standpoint we know that
coffee, tea, and chocolate. Caffeine is a diuretic
and stimulant, and currently it is used to sup-
wasted flesh. It was touted as the " Panacea of old
press tiredness and treat headaches, especially
migraines. The antioxidant property of green tea
is being investigated to treat and /or prevent a
Age," and D. Quelus remarked in The Natural
number of medical conditions including cancer,
if one examines
colitis, diabetes, and obesity. Last but not least,
the Nature of Chocolate, a little with respect
researchers have reported that the antioxidants
and phenols in dark chocolate can thin blood
History of Chocolate ( 1730), "
to the Constitution of aged Persons, it seems as
though the one was made on purpose to remedy
the Defects of the other. " It was also noted that
6
chocolate was not good for overweight people
and prevent clots, lower blood pressure and
bad cholesterol, and out perform codeine as a
cough suppressant. So, the next time you have
and those who ate and drank too freely, slept too
a headache, are feeling a bit rundown, or catch
much, and rarely exercised.
a cold, don't be afraid of a good old fashioned
Beyond chocolate' s nutritional value, some
medicinal qualities
were
associated
with
eighteenth century remedy.
it.
Chocolate was professed to aid digestion and
1 Of the Use of Tobacco, Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and
ease gripings of the bowels; however, in 1789,
Dr. William Cullen cautioned that this sub-
Drams, ( London: printed by H. Parker, 1722), p. 10.
stance was not always easily digested because of
Alimentaria, and Materia Medica, vol. I ( London: printed for
the high fat content and, the drink could lead
to " inconveniences of digestion" if not prepared
r. Baldwin, and L. B. Seeley, 1797), p. 101.
with the best chocolate.
Consider' d. ( London: printed for M. Cooper, 1745), p. 16.
The oily properties of chocolate made it a
good emollient. Internally it was taken to ease
urination when suffering from bladder stones
printed for J. Nourse, 1753), p. 219.
and gravel, to relieve all disorders of the upper
cine. ( London: printed for J. Johnson, 1775), p. 269.
respitory system including coughs, colds, and
consumptions,
and
to
strengthen
the
voice.
Externally the oil or butter of cacao was applied
warm for the relief of gouty and rheumatic pains
and painful hemorrhoids. In 1743 Dr. Robert
James reported, that "in America the Women
use it for rendering the Skin smooth
and even, "7 because it
2 Pearson, Richard, A Practical Synopsis of the Materia
3 Mason, Simon, The Good and Bad Effects of Tea
4 Lewis, William, The New Dispensatory. (
London:
5 Withers, Thomas, Observations on the Abuse of Medi6 Quelus, D., The Natural History of Chocolate, 2nd ed.
trans. by R. Brookes ( London: printed for J. Roberts, 1730),
p. 56.
7 James, Robert, A Medicinal Dictionary, vol. I ( London:
printed for T. Osborne, 1743), unpaged.
8 Pomet, Pierre, A Compleat History of Druggs, 3rd ed.
London: printed for J. and J. Bonswick, R. Wilkins,
S. Birt, T. Ward and E. Wickstead,
1737), p. 131.
�Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library' s
Special Collections
Federal Era American Newspaper Collection
MS2008. 5
approached by two groups totaling over 1, 000
men. Faced with this strong showing of hostility,
Ingersoll also resigned his post. Following this
Indenture between Norbome Berkeley, Baron de
incident, the Connecticut legislature voted to
Botetourt, James Harris, and Joseph Newton (ex-
send Eliphalet Dyer, William Samuel Johnson,
ecutors of the estate of Mary Phelps) and Robert
Parry, May 13, 1766. Indenture for the lease of
lands and property to Parry. The document is
signed by Botetourt, Harris, and Newton, and
and David Rowland to the Stamp Act Congress
their seals are affixed at the bottom. Attested on
the verso: " Sealed and delivered by the within
named Lord Botetourt, James Harris, and Joseph
Newton being first duly Stamp' d in the presence
in New York. Dyer was a prominent resident of
Windham who served in the General Assembly
before being appointed to the Governor's Council. Ledlie writes of accompanying Dyer to the
Stamp Act Congress. They arrived on October
2, five days before the Congress convened. Ledlie writes that these men will determine the fate
of Geo. Jones, Henr. Edwards." MS2008.6
of the British colonies in North America. He
John Nicholas ( 1764 -1819)
refers to November 1, the day the Stamp Act
is to go into effect, as " that fattal Day which is
Dreded by Every Socalled thinking man" and
letter, Falmouth,
Virginia, March 2, 1802 to James Rees, Geneva,
New York. In this letter, Nicholas ( third son
expresses his hope that " the present Congress
of Treasurer Robert Carter Nicholas) discusses
will do something worthy Such a Sett of Smart
Men as they appear to me to be." MS2008. 8
his impending move to Geneva in New York.
He mentions his concerns at the possibility of
flooding at a mill site and the receipt of a survey
executed by Capt. Baker. Nicholas expresses his
Deed of James Lyon to John Eyre for sixteen
slaves, 1809 November 21. James Lyon, a physi-
wish to send his slaves to New York before his
own departure, but the laws of that state prevent
cian in Northampton County, Virginia, was mar-
it. He also suggests to Rees that the law should
deed between James Lyon and John Eyre is for
ried to Sarah Eyre, the sister of John Eyre. The
be changed. MS2008. 7
the transfer of sixteen slaves to Eyre as security
Hugh Ledlie letter, New York, to Samuel Gray,
for seventeen hundred dollars Lyon received from
Eyre. The deed stipulates that Lyon or his heirs
have until November 21, 1811 ( two years from
Windham, Conn., October 9, 1765. Hugh Led-
lie, a shopkeeper in Hartford, Connecticut, and
captain during the French and Indian War, was
a prominent member of the Windham, Con-
the date of the deed) to repay the loan. The deed
further stipulates that the slaves may be sold by
Eyre if the money is not paid in time. The deed
necticut, Sons of Liberty during the Stamp Act
crisis. Encouraged by the Virginia Stamp Act
Resolves of May 30, 1756 and the Massachusetts
was proved at the court in Northampton County
on December 9, 1811, following the death of
call for an inter colonial Congress, residents of
slaves are all named in the deed. MS2008. 9
Lyon in November of that year. The sixteen
Windham determined to resist the threat to
their liberties. Ledlie was probably involved in
Levi Ezra Bartlett manuscript concerning the
the intimidation of Nathaniel Wales in Wind-
12th Amendment to the United States Con-
ham in the late summer of 1765 that convinced
stitution concerning electors.( ratified June 15,
him to resign his post as stamp agent for the
1804). Levi Bartlett was the son of Josiah Bartlett of New Hampshire, signer of the Declara-
Windham region. On September
18,
1765,
Connecticut stamp agent Jared Ingersoll was
tion of Independence. MS2008. 10
�10
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
A Formulary of that part of the Solemnity which
York near Lake Champlain. Yonge received the
is performd in the Collegiate Church of St. Peter
grant before the war, and he wants his agent to
Westminster at the Coronation of her Majesty
help him secure it and to aid in getting settlers
Queen Anne, 23 Apr. 1702. This manuscript
for the land. Yonge informs his agent that the
was probably intended to serve as a rehearsal
English are ready to trade with the Americans
document for the coronation of Queen Anne. It
as soon as your Government is a little settled."
was most likely intended for one of the dignitar-
Yonge also states that there is confusion in-
ies taking part in the ceremony. MS2008. 11
volved in trading with America: " We must
likewise know, if possible, with what Powers, or
Bond of Louisa Ross with the Common Council
authorities we are to treat or settle any commer-
of Alexandria, Virginia, May 9, 1822. Bond of
Louisa Ross and Davis Bowie, security, with the
particular State, or with Congress. Whether if
Common Council of Alexandria. The bond
there is to be a general Treaty with Congress of
was required pursuant to an act of the council
a commercial Nature, there is to be a Particular
regarding slaves, free negroes, and mulattoes.
one with Each State as far as may consist with
cial, or mercantile matters —whether with each
This law required free negroes and mulattoes to
the General one." Yonge goes on to discuss the
post bond with good and sufficient security for
fifty dollars to guarantee their " good, peaceable,
political situation in England. At the end of
and honest conduct, during their residence" in
Alexandria. The bond was meant to guarantee
the good behavior of Louisa Ross. MS2008. 12
Yonge' s letter is the draft of a letter from his
agent to the one person currently settled on the
New York grant. MS2008. 15
Fourth of July orations of Nathaniel Paine
James Rush letter to John Mason, George Town,
November 10, 1800. Writing one month after
Denny. The first oration is a defense of the
Federalists, particularly John Adams and George
the execution of Gabriel [ Prosser], Rush dis-
Washington,
cusses the disturbances caused by the slave
patrols in the wake of Gabriel's Rebellion. Rush
Thompson Callender. Denny attacks Callender
and Jefferson in the oration. Denny criticizes
notes that Governor Mason has called for mili-
Jefferson's administration and the South in gen-
tia patrols of the various quarters to look for any
eral. He writes of the " painful task of viewing
against
the
attacks
of James
improper assemblage of Blacks." The militia
our situation under a different administration.
was to bring such blacks before a magistrate or
the commanding officer. Rush feared this power
The affairs of our country at present day are
governed &
directed by men of the South... .
would be abused. MS 2008. 13
School houses in Virginia are as rare as Brothels
in New England & places of public worship as
Two documents concerning the sale of slaves
unfrequented, as horse races in Massachusetts."
belonging to Dr. John R. Archer to satisfy a debt
The second oration looks at the divisiveness in
owed to the Farmers Bank of Virginia. The first
American political culture and uses the French
document is a copy of the suit issued by the Su-
and English revolutions as examples of where
perior Court of Law of Petersburg for the case of
America may be headed if things don't change.
The President, Directors, & Co. of the Farmers
The final three pages of the manuscript include
Bank of Va., against John R. Archer and Wm. B.
genealogical material on the Denny family.
Giles." The copy was made by the court's clerk,
Harry Beverly Gaines, for Dr. Archer. William
MS2008. 16
Branch Gaines endorsed the note of Archer and
An abstract of a cargoe for the Windward Coast,
was also sued by the bank. The second item is a
Africa. Abstract listing the cargo of an unknown
letter from George Jefferson, sheriff of Amelia
slave trader bound for the Windward Coast of
Africa, modem Cote d' Ivoire. The trader was
County, concerning the sale of Dr. Archer's
slaves and the handling of the money from the
sale. MS 2008. 14
most likely from Liverpool as some of the cargo
is from Manchester. The cargo consists chiefly
of manufactured goods including cloth, beads,
George Yonge letter to his agent in America
muskets, and spirits. Much of the cloth is Indian
concerning his land grant in New York, May
in origin: chiloes, brawles, niccneees, and biju-
5, 1784. George Yonge represented Honiton in
Parliament from 1754 to 1794 and served as sec-
dipauts. There are some raw materials including
retary of state for war at the time of the writing
lead and iron listed in the cargo. The mention
of cloth from Benin " if to be got" implies trad-
of this letter. The letter was written to his agent
ing en route. The cargo was to be traded for 250
in America concerning his land grant in New
slaves. MS2008. 17
�11
Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
Hartford Convention. The Proceedings of a
Methodist persuasion) criticizes slave owners for
Convention of Delegates, from the states of
their mistreatment of slaves within those colonies.
Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode- Island;
Whitefield notes that slave masters tend to treat
the counties of Cheshire, and Grafton, in the
their animals better than their slaves. He writes
state of New Hampshire; and the county of
Windham, in the state of Vermont convened
my blood has frequently almost run cold within
me, to consider how many of your Slaves had
at Hartford. The final report of the Hartford
neither convenient Food to eat or proper Raiment
Convention, this report criticizes the adminis-
to put on, notwithstanding most of the Comforts
tration of James Madison and proposes several
you enjoy were solely owing to their indefatigable
constitutional amendments aimed at curtailing
Labours." Whitefield believes the prayers of the
slaves will be heard and " The blood of them spilt
the political power of the South and protecting
Northern commercial interests.
for these many Years in your respective Provinces,
will ascend up to Heaven against you." White -
The Independent Gazetteer; or, the Chronicle of
Freedom, November 8, 1783, Numb. 106. This
field's main concern, however, is for the souls of
the enslaved. He believes the slave owners pur-
issue contains George Washington's farewell ad-
posely keep their slaves ignorant of Christianity, a
dress to the Continental Army.
crime far worse than the physical degradation the
slaves are made to endure.
The London Chronicle from Tuesday, April 3, to
Thursday, April 5, 1770, Vol. XXVII, No. 2076.
This issues contains an account of an attack
The Pennsylvania Packet, and Daily Advertiser,
Wednesday, February 9, 1785, No. 1876. Con-
upon an overseer at the plantation of Bowler
tains an advertisement for a fire engine " On the
Cocke.
newest construction ... "
by Mason &
Gibbs.
The advertisement includes an image of the fire
The London Chronicle, from Saturday, July 16, to
Tuesday, July 19, 1774 Vol. XXXVI, No. 2747.
Contains: " Extract of a Letter from a Lady at
engine.
Williamsburgh, in Virginia, to a Friend in Lon-
John Taylor. New Views of the Constitution of
the United States. Washington, D.C.: Way and
don, dated June 1." Discusses the reaction to the
Gideon, 1823. This is the last of Taylor's works
closing of the Port of Boston. Mentions the day
of fasting and prayer in Virginia, the dissolution
of the House of Burgesses and the possibility of
on the Constitution. It discusses the Constitu-
Taylor decried the tendency of the federal
interrupting trade with England.
government to repeatedly assume powers not
tional Convention and the Federalist papers.
granted by the Constitution.
The Pennsylvania Evening Post, Tuesday, September 12, 1775, Num. 100. Contains a petition
John Peter Zenger. The Trial ofJohn Peter Zenger,
addressed " To the Hon. President, and the rest of
sitting in Convention, the petition of sundry mer-
of New York, Printer: Who Was Charged with
Having Printed and Published a Libel, Against the
Government and Acquited. With a Narrative of
the DELEGATES of the people of Virginia, now
chants, and others, natives of Great Britain, and
His Case. London: John Almon, 1765. Account
resident in this colony." The petition attempts to
of the trial of Zenger, publisher of the New
allay Virginians' fears of people born in Britain
and living in Virginia. The petitioners assert their
York Weekly Journal, who was tried for libel for
remarks in his paper concerning the William
Cosway, governor of New York.
willingness to support the American cause short
of taking up arms against the British. Following
the petition are the resolutions of the Convention
Tench Coxe. An Enquiry into the Principles on
concerning it. The first resolution pronounces
Which a Commercial System for the United States
the petition reasonable and calls on the people of
of America Should Be Founded; To Which Are
Virginia not to harass native bom Britons who do
not show themselves to be enemies. The second
resolution calls for the petition and that it be
Added Some Political Observations Connected with
printed in the Virginia Gazette. Signed in print by
Robert Carter Nicholas and John Tazewell.
the Subject. Philadelphia: Robert Aitken, 1787.
Paper read at the first meeting of the Philadelphia Society for Political Inquiries, convened at
the home of Benjamin Franklin, May 11, 1787.
Coxe advocates the growth of manufactures to
The Pennsylvania Gazette, April 17, 1740, Numb.
592. In an open letter to the inhabitants of
create a more balanced economy while taking
Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas, George
paper anticipates Hamilton's Report on Manu-
Whitefield ( Church of England minister of the
factures that Coxe drafted.
care not to alarm the agrarian majority. This
�12
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Daniel Webster. A Discourse in Commemora-
An Abstract of Several Cases Relating to the Trade
tion of the Lives and Services of John Adams and
to Africa. London, 1714. This pamphlet argues
Thomas Jefferson,
Delivered in Faneuil
Hall,
against the restoration of the monopoly of the
Boston, August 2,
1826. Boston: Cummings,
Royal African Company. The author notes that
1826. This address on the
since the trade was opened, the number of slaves
deaths of Adams and Jefferson was delivered on
exported to the America's has increased and the
demand for British manufactures has increased.
The author states that it is dangerous to place
Hilliard &
Co.,
the fiftieth anniversary of the August 2, 1776
signing of the official Declaration by members
of the Continental Congress. Both Adams and
Jefferson had died on July 4, 1826, fifty years to
the trade in the hands of one company since any
setback to that company would be a great blow
the day after the adoption of the Declaration of
to the British economy.
Independence.
Mercure de France, Novembre, 1787. A French ga-
Royal African Company. The Case of the Royal
African- Company and of the Plantations. London,
zette and literary magazine, this issue contains the
1714. In this pamphlet, the Royal African Com-
text of the proposed United States Constitution.
pany makes the case for restoring its monopoly
of the trade in African slaves. The company
Mercure de France, Septembre, 1789. Contains
notes that the trade was developed at their
the text of Madison' s speech to Congress of
June 8 submitting twelve amendments to the
company expense and that since the loss of its
monopoly, the price of slaves has risen. This
Constitution, the first ten of which will become
price increase, it notes, has been detrimental to
the Bill of Rights in 1791.
the colonies and to British manufactures.
Journal of the United States in Congress Assembled:
Containing the Proceedings from the Sixth Day of
November, 1786, to the Fifth Day of November,
John Stevens. Examen Du Gouvernement
d' Angleterre, Compare Aux Constitutions Des
Etats -Unis ...
Paris: Froulle, 1789. This is the
1787. New York, 1787. The journal of Congress
French
containing the text of the proposed Constitu-
on Government. It was popular with French
tion, Washington's transmittal letter to Congress
reformers who favored an American style de-
of the same, and the Northwest Ordinance.
mocracy for France.
Thomas's Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode -Island,
Jonathan Carver. Travels through the Interior Parts
New Hampshire &
Vermont Almanack ...
1788.
translation of Stevens'
Observations
Worcester: Isaiah Thomas, 1787. This edition of
of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767, and
1768. London: Charles Dilly, 1781. Carver's ac-
Thomas's almanac contains the " Proceedings of
count of his travels in the interior of America.
the Federal Convention,"
consisting of the full
Carver traveled farther west than any English-
text of the proposed Constitution and George
man before the Revolution and his account was
Washington's letter of transmittal to Congress.
a valuable source for later explorers, including
Lewis and Clark. The work is the first to use
Thomas's Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode -Island, Newhampshire &
Vermont Almanack . . .
the word " Oregon" in print and contains several
illustrations including colored maps, images of
1797. Worcester : Isaiah Thomas, 1796. This
Native Americans and their implements, and
edition contains Washington's Farewell Address
the tobacco plant.
to the citizens of the United States.
Thomas Hutchins. A Topographical Description
State of the British and French Colonies in North
America with Respect to Number of Peoples,
of Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North
Carolina, Comprehending the Rivers Ohio, Ken -
Forces, Forts, Indians, Trade and Other Advan-
hawa, Sioto, Cherokee, Wabash, Illinois, Missis-
ents information on the situation of the French
sippi ...
London: J. Almon, 1778. One of the
most valuable sources on the West by the most
and British colonies in North America drawn
accomplished geographer in America at the
Cadwallader Colden, and Franklin's Observa-
tages. London: A. Millar, 1755. This work pres-
largely from the work of Archibald Kennedy,
time. Hutchins descriptions of America west of
tions upon the Increase of Mankind. The author
the Alleghenies were the best available at the
time of the Revolution. This work includes two
discusses the designs of the French upon those
parts of North America the English believe to
small maps showing a stretch of the Mississippi
be their territory such as the Ohio Valley. The
and the falls of the Ohio.
author comments on Washington' s mission to
�Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
13
Ohio and blames both the British administration and the Americans for the current situation
Cadwallader Colden. The History of the Five In-
with regard to the French.
dian Nations of Canada: Which Are Dependent on
the Province of New -York in America, and Are the
Alexander Scott Withers. Chronicles of Border
of the World. London: Thomas Osborne, 1747.
Warfare, or, a History of the Settlement by the
Whites, of North Western Virginia: and of the
Indian Wars and Massacres, in that Section of the
Jackson Jonathan. Thoughts upon the Political
State; with Reflections, Anecdotes, &
That of Massachusetts Is More Particularly Consid-
Barrier between the English and French in That Part
C. Clarks-
Situation of the United States of America: In Which
burg, Va.: Joseph Israel, 1831. A compilation
ered; with Some Observations on the Constitution
of accounts of encounters between settlers and
for a Federal Government, Addressed to the People
Native Americans in the Ohio country.
of the Union. Worcester, 1788.
William Douglass. A Summary, Historical and
Political, of the First Planting, Progressive Improvements, and Present State of the British Settlements
in North -America. London: R. and J. Dodsley,
France. An Historical Memorial of the Negotiation
of France and England, From the 26th of March,
1761, to the 20th of September of the Same Year,
with the Vouchers. London: Becket, 1761. The
1760. Douglass was the first resident of America
first English language edition of these state
to undertake a history of all the British North
papers relating to the Treaty of Paris that ended
American colonies. While the work was praised
the French and Indian War. These papers were
by various contemporaries of Douglass for bringing together more facts on the American colo-
demonstrate England's fault in peace negotia-
nies than any other publication, Wright Howes
in his U. S.
originally issued by the French government to
tions.
Iana ( 1650 -1950: A Selective
Bibliography in which Are Described 11, 620 Uncommon and Significant Books Relating to the Continental Portion of the United States. New York:
Preliminary Articles of Peace, between His Britannick Majesty, the Most Christian King, and the
Bowker, 1962) referred to it as " A vast reservoir
Day of November, 1762. London: Thomas Har-
of untrustworthy information."
rison, 1762.
Samuel Kercheval. A History of the Valley of Vir-
Ohio Valley and the western parts of Virginia
Stamp Act Congress. Authentic Account of the
Proceedings of the Congress Held at New -York, in
MDCCLXV, on the Subject of the American Stamp
Act. London: J. Almon, 1767. First English edi-
and Pennsylvania. The work is based upon
tion which followed the publication of the first
the
edition issued in Annapolis, Maryland.
ginia. Woodstock, Va., 1850. The second edition
of Kercheval's account of the settlement of the
author's
interviews
with the
inhabitants
Catholick King: Signed at Fontainebleau, the 3d
and the work of other authors especially Philip
Doddridge, a distinguished figure of western
Thomas Dring. Recollections of the Jersey Prison -
Virginia.
Ship. Providence, RI: Greene, 1829.
Thomas Jefferson. Reports of Cases Determined
in the General Court of Virginia. From 1730, to
Londina Illustrata. Graphic and Historic Memori-
1740; and from 1768 to 1772. Charlottesville,
Charitable Foundations, Palaces, Halls, Courts .
als of Monasteries, Churches, Chapels, Schools,
Va.: E Carr and Co., 1829. A collection of
London, 1825. This book contains interior
Virginia court cases that Jefferson organized
views, exterior views, and surrounding neigh-
for publication from the records of the Gen-
borhoods and streets of these institutions. It is
eral Court. Includes Jefferson's essay: " Whether
Christianity is a part of the Common Law ?"
arranged in sections for each type of structure.
Expose des Motifs de la Conduite du Roi, Rela-
lections, John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library)
Submitted by Douglas Mayo, head, special coltivement a l' Angleterre. Paris, 1779. This is the
official first edition of France's justification for
taking up arms against the British during the
American Revolution.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
We strive to make the best possible replicas of
American and English eighteenth -century products. This entails careful study of original objects,
their materials and production processes,
and a
commitment to be faithful to them. Access to
Colonial Williamsburg's collections and curators
enhances these studies. Consultation with ar-
chaeologists, conservators, and historians can help
determine the impact of social, cultural, and economic influences on forms and fabrication. When
it comes to certain trades, like wigs, period tools,
some textiles, and wheels, we seem to be among
the very few institutions, businesses, and hobbyists
who strive and succeed in this endeavor.
Even in cases where we are not the only ones
Q&
A
Question: Does Colonial Williamsburg, through
its Historic Trades program, preserve certain
trades that don' t exist in the eighteenth cen-
tury manner anywhere else? ( submitted by a
participant in an Introduction to Interpretive
Education class)
Answer: The question is a good one that can-
not be answered so simply. For a few trades,
the answer is probably yes. For others, a proper
answer requires reflection on Colonial Wil-
liamsburg's approach to preserving eighteenth century work, how that work differs from similar
efforts elsewhere, and the overall environment
in which our tradesmen ply their skills at this
particular museum.
accurately replicating period products, we are no-
table in our dedication to discovering and imple-
menting eighteenth- century technology with few
modem shortcuts ( we do take a few on a case -bycase basis), using appropriate tools and materials,
as well as understanding and applying the mechanics of period technology and the mind set of
period artisans. We are able to achieve this level
of authenticity through our in - ouse tool h
making
capabilities, our ability to obtain proper materials,
the availability of historical and curatorial information about
artisans
and products,
and —
most
importantlyfinancial backing.
Indeed, Colonial Williamsburg's financial
support allows us to practice trades with period
technology when doing so in a commercial setting would otherwise not be viable. The result is
that only a handful of other museum programs
Colonial Williamsburg has the largest and
and hobbyists pursue these trades with a com-
most diverse museum historic trades program in
parable dedication to authenticity of method
the world, exceeding in size and scope any other
and product. Even in these cases — especially
public or private program dedicated specifically
regarding hobbyists —the historical accuracy of
to eighteenth century, non- mechanized practice
our setting and work environment usually sets us
and production. We are one of the few museum
apart. Even though we do not work in a " pure"
trades programs that employ full -ime, specialized
t
eighteenth- century environment, it is much
traditional artisans, who master and practice their
more intentionally controlled for period accuracy than most other " traditional" shops. While
trades rather than demonstrate basic operations
as an interpretive activity. While individuals
elsewhere may rival or exceed our Historic Trades
the Historic Area is not a perfect re- creation,
staff in knowledge and skills, overall mastery of
traditional hand skills at Colonial Williamsburg
also fosters a spirit of experimentation among
our trades staff, as exemplified by the develop-
is unequaled. Likewise, while other individuals
ment of programs to make chocolate and beer or
or institutions research eighteenth -century trades
to fabricate a cannon and a fire engine.
and technology, we are, collectively, the most
focused and informed. As America's longest -
only we make guns using eighteenth- century
the
overall verisimilitude
of the
environment
There are many traditional gunsmiths, but
running historic trades program, we draw on our
technology exclusively. We have the only coo-
experience in organization and administration,
pers making tight work in the traditional man-
technical know - ow, training, and research for
h
just about everything we do.
Colonial Williamsburg's Historic Trades have
established and maintained our leadership role
ner. Colonial Williamsburg supports some of the
through dedication to high standards in redis-
ers, and shoemakers dedicated to making wares
totally by hand —not in the modem sense of
covering and preserving traditional trades.
few silversmiths, cabinetmakers, blacksmiths,
brick makers, carpenters, basket makers, founders, cooks, mantua makers, tailors, harness mak-
�Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
15
not in a factory," but, literally, using only hand
I work with said they were told that marriages
and foot power, hand tools, and simple, histori-
were listed that way because one of the years
was for the wedding and the other for the mar-
cally appropriate machines.
While schools exist that train hobbyists and
modem craftspeople
and some museums
train
riage license. Can you set us straight, please?
submitted by Carolyn Wilson)
their staff in a few historic trades, Colonial
Answer: You are right, it has to do with the
Williamsburg operates one of the best historical
calendar, but there were two aspects of the cal-
trades training programs in the western world.
endar in the colonial period that contribute to
Each apprenticeship is govemed by a curriculum
confusion over dating of documents and events
developed for the specific trade, and overall our
before 1752, neither of which has to do with
standards are, if not the highest, among the
weddings or marriage licenses. As any historian,
researcher, or family historian can testify, docu-
highest anywhere. Many of us are informed, passionate, and stubborn purists!
ments of all kinds ( wills, deeds, private letters,
The size and diversity of our trades program
sets us apart in another important respect. We
inventories, newspapers, account books, and,
yes, marriage dates) can carry the Old Style/
are the only organization that can approach rep-
New Style double year notation. A notable ex-
licating eighteenth- century production systems.
ample in Williamsburg is the gravestone of John
The interactions among our tradesmen in a single trade shop or among shops when collaborat-
ing on a big project, as well as the components
we make or purchase, replicate closely those of
the period. Thus we can build a house from the
ground up and furnish it and its occupants much
as it was done in colonial Virginia.
Formerly noted for our size, scope, and focus on
the eighteenth century, Colonial Williamsburg's
trades program in recent years has increased in
significance as a preserver of traditional hand
work in any form. Before World War II, many
trades, though dominated or assisted by machines, still employed hand work and traditional
skills, and during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s,
many museums operated trades programs. Over
the last several decades, however, production
pressure has eliminated most traditional skills in
modern manufacturing. Likewise, most museum
trades programs have shrunk or ceased altogether
in response to economic pressures. This also
means that we are one of the few places left —
in
some cases the only place —where
museums and
Page at Bruton Parish Church that shows Page's
date of death as January 23, 1691/ 2.
Old Style/New Style dates in Britain and
her colonies. The calendar in England for much
of the colonial period was complicated on one
level by an anomaly that had developed in medieval England, whereby English clergy began
dating the new year from March 25 - -he Feast of
t
the Annunciation or " Lady Day," as the English
styled it. An extremely important feast day in
the Christian year, Lady Day commemorated
the Angel Gabriel's announcement to Mary ( the
Lady" of Lady Day) of the coming birth of Jesus.
Thus, January 1 through March 24 were still part
of the previous year in England but part of the
new year in most of the rest of western Europe.
To help alleviate the confusion for these three
months,
clerks
and
other
government
officials,
newspaper editors and ordinary letter writers
sometimes used both Old Style ( English) and New
Style ( continental) years separated by a " forward
slash" or other punctuation ( for example, Febru-
ary 18, 1711/ 2 or February 18, 1711 -12).
As of
collectors can acquire accurate reproductions of
March 25, the year designation became the same
eighteenth- century ( and sometimes even seven-
in England as it was in the rest of Europe through
teenth- or nineteenth century) items.
It is evident that these attributes of our Historic
Trades program embody Colonial Williamsburg's
mission to preserve and present life of the eigh-
teenth century. Whether unique in every respect
or not, our trades programs do their palpable part
in fulfilling the wish of so many guests who say
they want to feel they have gone " back in time."
Jay Gaynor, Director of Historic Trades, and
Bob Doares, Interpretive Training)
Question: Please correct me if I'm wrong:
December 31. Thus, March 24, 1711/ 1712 in Eng-
land was followed by March 25, 1712 ( not 1713).
Slashed" dates showing Old Style and New Style
years applied only to the days January 1 — March
24, not to the rest of the year. Please note that
not everyone in Great Britain and her colonies
used the Old Style/ New Style convention, with
the result that considerable confusion surrounds
the dating of certain historical documents created before 1752 when Parliament adopted the
Gregorian calendar and changed New Year's Day
to January 1 ( see below).
of the uncertainty of the year but because of
Gregorian Calendar. On a second and broader
level, calendar confusion in the colonial period
the change in the calendar. One of the people
stems from British refusal to adopt the Gregorian
Some years are written 1726/27, not because
�16
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
calendar along with most of the rest of western
FMtxrax cttittstty, f: ufx 1,
DOrhereby certify, that any lu t
1777•
Europe in 1582. Still in use today ( with additional
fine tuning), the Gregorian calendar improved
upon the Julian calendar developed by Julius Cae-
1
sar in 46 B.C. Based upon more precise astro-
cattle for his teavinemz is un account that
nomical observations by Jesuit priest/astronomer
1 ain ag intl and will not give u1ycon(eut
Christopher Clavius and German astronomer Jo-
hannes Kepler, Pope Gregory XIII (pope from 1572
to 1585) established new rules goveming leap years
to better account for the exact length of a solar
year ( 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 46 seconds)
and decreed that October 5, 1582, be designated
Griixes has ciciericti.my 'hou4e, aqd now
is going` about in an idle mariner' and Ole
ha. he llnuld in'terin:irry with a certain
jaeki il) who is a
lathibeba
tnelulerr',
pu lillt or marry the faicl Philip Crimes to
any perfon wh reye1',
gorian calendar was obvious, it was impossible in
undci• age,
as hr is but 20 years old the 24' h day ut
Dui-ember next.
October 15, 1582, to correct for the accumulated
10 -day error by 1582 in the Julian calendar.
Although the technical superiority of the Gre-
and d+ fore varri all m' n' ll. ry ° +
a
to
fl -
Pn11. rP
GRII stRI.
FAIRFAX county, August 1, 1777.
I DO hereby certify, that my son Philip
Grimes, has deserted my house, and now
1582 for Protestant England under Elizabeth to
is going about in an idle manner; and the
accept a calendar devised by the pope and adopted
cause for his leaving me is on account that
under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church.
I am against and will not give my consent
Britain clung to the Julian calendar for another 170
that he should intermarry with a certain
years with the result that after 1582, days of the
Bathsheba Hollis ( alias Jackson) who is a
month in England were numbered ten days behind
the continent. Although a separate ( but related)
melater [ mulatto], and do forewarn all
issue from Old Style/New Style dating discussed
above that had to do with March 25 being New
Year's Day in Great Britain, the ten - ay difference
d
Philip Grimes to any person whatever,
ministers to publish or marry the said
while under age, as he is but 20 years old
the 24th day of December next.
could cause its own trouble with dates near the end
of December. For example, December 29, 1718, in
England was something like January 8, 1719, on
the continent. (It is not clear that this discrepancy
was often noted in documents.)
Linda Rowe, Department of Training and Histori-
PHILIP GRIMES.
The elder Philip Grimes is exercising his prerogative to withhold his permission for his underage son
to marry and reminds ministers that intermarriage
between the races was forbidden in Virginia law.
cal Research)
Question: Was a marriage license required in
eighteenth -century Virginia? What was the
Reading of the Banns I've heard about?
the county court clerk had equal legal standing in Virginia. According to this act, marriage
licenses were issued by the clerk of court and
Answer: Before being wed in colonial times,
signed by the senior justice of the county ( or the
the prospective bride and groom needed to
either have the banns read ( a public announce-
his bond with security that there was no impedi-
ment in church of the intention to marry) on
ment to the marriage. If either party was under
second justice in his absence). The clerk posted
three consecutive Sundays or obtain a marriage
the age of 21, then the father or guardian of that
license from the county court clerk. In both
party gave his consent in person to the clerk or
cases the parties to the marriage came away with
a piece of paper ( signed by the parish minister
in the case of the banns or court clerk for the
license). The public reading of the banns before
the church community and a marriage license
from the court had the same purpose: To certify
that there was no reason that the couple in ques-
tion could not be legally married.
A 1748 Act of Assembly, An Act concerning
Marriages, declared ( as had a similar act of 1705)
that publishing the banns on three successive
Sundays or obtaining a marriage license from
sent a written, witnessed statement to that ef-
fect to the court clerk. In the case of banns, the
marriage could go forward if no objection to it
was raised after three public statements in the
parish church of intention to marry. Discovery
of impediments to the marriage such as age, one
or both parties already married, or permission of
parent or guardian withheld if either party was
underage relied upon the information networks
of the day: family and community.
Linda Rowe, Department of Training and Historical Research)
�Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
17
Of the Greatest Advantage':
A Brief History of
Eyeglasses through the Eighteenth Century
by Susan Pryor
Susan was formerly employed at the Pasteur & Galt Apothecary Shop.
In our modern world filled with visual stimuli,
Despite the increasing popularity and afford-
it is hard to imagine a world where distinct and
ability of glasses, the medical profession typically
focused vision was not always possible. Such a
scoffed at their use. Guy de Chauliac, a professor
need was first felt by scholars who spent their
of medicine at Montpellier in Paris, thought
time reading, writing and copying manuscripts in
of the printing press in 1440, this work was done
by hand and by candlelight. The advent of print-
to be the first medical writer to reference eyeglasses, noted in his Chirurgia Magna in 1363, ".
And if things do not avail, recourse must be
had to spectacles of glass or beryl ".2 Even as late
ing stimulated the growth of education and with
as 1583, celebrated oculist Dr. Georg Bartisch
it the need to preserve and enhance vision.
of Dresden, advised against their use: "' It is bet-
monasteries and libraries. Before the invention
There is no specific date assigned to the
ter and more useful that one leaves spectacles
invention of reading glasses, but rather a range
of some twenty years between the 1260s and
1280s, with most historians in the western
alone. For naturally one sees and recognizes
something better when he has nothing in front
of his eyes than when he has something there. It
world settling on ca. 1287; glasses were already
is much better that one should preserve his two
recorded in use in China by 1200. Credit cannot
eyes than that he should have four. "'
3
be given to a specific inventor, though English
It was the use of colored lenses that stimu-
monk, Roger Bacon, perhaps influenced by the
eleventh -century writings of Arab scholar Al-
lated any medical interest at all, however minimal. As early as the sixteenth century in China,
hazen, was instrumental in their development
tea colored lenses were used to cool the face
from the heat of conjunctivitis. But, and let
by suggesting the use of lenses to assist in reading. In his Opus Majus, written in 1268, Bacon
stated:
If anyone examines letters or minute objects
me state this clearly, there is NO reference to
the use of blue lenses in the identification of or
treatment for syphilis.
through the medium of a crystal or glass . . . , if
The age of the user generally determined
it be shaped like the lesser segment of a sphere,
with all of the convex side toward the eye, he
will see the letters far better and they will seem
specific lens needs. Spanish optician Daca de
larger to him....
the
For this reason such an
Valdes created the first numbering system for
lens selection in 1623. But as late as 1789 it was
customer not a medical professional who
with weak eyes, for they can see any letter,
was largely responsible for choosing the right
glasses for his needs which surely led to occa-
however small, if magnified enough.'
sional mistakes in lens choice:
instrument is useful to all persons and to those
At first lenses were moved along the page
before evolving into handheld single ( called a
Though, in the choice of spectacles, every one
must finally determine for himself, which are
spectacle in England) or double lenses set into
the glasses through which he obtains the most
distinct vision....
By trying many spectacles
the eye is fatigued, as the pupil varies in size
metal frames at an equal distance apart as the
eyes; or the two framed lenses were connected
by a rigid bridge and balanced on the nose,
keeping the lenses close to the eye.
with every different glass, and the eye endeavours to accommodate itself to every change
In the early years of their existence, eye-
that is produced. Hence the purchaser often
glasses were exclusively for the scholar but soon
fixes upon a pair of spectacles, not the best
became a sign of wealth and importance. This
adapted to his sight, but those which seem to
relieve him most, while his eyes are in a forced
exclusivity, however, kept their popularity with
the masses rather flat until after the printing
press stimulated the desire for and ability to
acquire an education, increasing the demand
for the mass production of affordable glasses and
and unnatural state; and consequently, when
he gets home, and they are returned to their
natural state, what he has chosen, fatiguing
and injurious to his natural sight. 4
extending their benefit to anyone with the need
or desire for corrected vision. Simultaneously,
could have their vision corrected with glasses.
spectacle- makers guilds appeared in Europe.
These first lenses were convex and ground from
Initially, only longsighted ( farsighted) people
�18
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
beryl or quartz. Glass lenses came later. Those
made from Venetian glass were considered su-
constantly, I have only to move my eyes up or
perior. In the early sixteenth century, concave
down, as I want, to see distinctly far or near,
lenses were introduced for the shortsighted ( near-
the proper glass always being ready. 6
By this means, as I wear my own spectacles
sighted) person. The frames were made from
Dr. Franklin's accomplishment notwithstand-
brass, iron, nickel, silver and even bone or hom.
The regular use of eyeglasses could be tedious
as they constantly had to be put onto or taken
ing, the idea of the split -lens was suggested as
early as 1716, and the earliest recorded experiments occurred in London in 1760, possibly by
off the nose and the hand - eld lenses raised or
h
Franklin, himself.
lowered. Toward the middle of the sixteenth
In 1756 English optician Benjamin Martin de-
century, leather or hom frames fastened around
the head with leather straps. By the 1580s,
signed an earlier variation on reading glasses that
glasses frames with cords attached could
be looped around the ears. The problem
was finally solved in the early decades
of the eighteenth century ( perhaps
as early as 1702) with the inven-
partially obscured the aperture of the
lens with a wide ring of hom to restrict
the overload of light into the eye.
He also tilted the lens inward to
converge the axes of the eye more
strongly onto the object in sight
tion of rigid side arms called
temples
that
attached
and often tinted them violet.
He called these new glasses
to
the frames and pressed
against
the
side
Martin's Margins.
Unfortunately,
of the
head to hold them on.
Again, no credit is given to a
specific inventor, though London
Martin
was considered rather radical
by his peers, one of whom wrote a
scathing rebuttal ( anonymously, of
optician Edward Scarlett is thought to have per-
course) to his 1756 Essay on Visual Glasses in which
fected and promoted them in the late 1720s. In
1752, James Ayscough advertised his own modi-
he introduced his Margins. He further challenged
fication, double -hinged temple pieces. By the end
use of colored lenses, long celebrated by popular
of the century shortened temple pieces that ended
in front of the ears and accommodated wigs and
culture, in restoring weak or tired eyes and shad-
elaborate hairstyles were available.
the historical record, however, until Jarius Aucott
Nevertheless, eyeglasses were never univer-
sally the last word in fashion ( except in Spain
where they were all the rage). George Wash-
ington reportedly once asked pardon for using
them: "
Gentlemen, you will permit me to put
on my spectacles for, as you see, I have not only
grown gray, but almost blind in the service of
my country. "
5
conventional wisdom regarding the therapeutic
ing the eyes from the sun. They did not enter
advocated the use of green glass in 1561. In December 1666, Samuel Pepys was advised to use green
spectacles, remarking in his diary, " I do truly find
that I have overwrought my eyes so that now they
are become weak and apt to be tired, and all the
excess of light makes them sore...." 7 Green lenses
were indeed thought to be the most favorable, but
Martin declared that idea to be a " vulgar Error ",
Probably the most famous modification made
and, basing his claim on the force of refracted light
to existing eyeglasses was the introduction of the
split or bifocal lens. In a 1784 letter to Phila-
passing through each color argued that "... blue
and indigo Colours are preferable to [the eyes]; and
delphia optician George Whately, Benjamin
Franklin wrote of his frustration at needing two
so the yellow, orange and red are in order the worst
separate pairs of glasses to improve his sight,
lenses were available in a kaleidoscope of colors and
describing how he solved his dilemma and ultimately created bifocals:
I imagine that it will be found pretty generally
shades including "...
Colours of Light. " In eighteenth 8
century Europe
yellow green, meadow green,
sea green, light blue, deep blue, yellow, violet, wine colored and pink. "
9
true that the same convexity of glass, through
Williamsburg merchant John Greenhow ad-
which a man sees clearest and best at the
vertised numerous types of corrective and protec-
distance proper for reading is not the best for
greater distances. I therefore had formerly two
pairs of spectacles, which I shifted occasionally as in travelling I sometimes read, and
tive eyewear for sale in several issues of the Virginia
purple spectacles, for preserving weak Eyes, visual
often wanted to regard the prospects. Finding
Spectacles, of a new Construction made by Mar-
this change troublesome and not always suf-
tin, the celebrated Optician, concave Spectacles
ficiently ready, I had the glasses cut and half
of each kind associated in the same circle.
and Hand Glasses for near sighted People, convex
Gazette throughout the 1760s and 1770s, including
this detailed ad from April 1771: " Green, blue and
Spectacles and Glasses of all sorts. "10 Reading
�19
Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
glasses, Martin's Margins, temple spectacles with
double and single joints and green preservers were
1 Richard Corson, Fashions in Eyeglasses ( PA: Dufour
Editions, 1967), 19.
also sold at the Virginia Gazette printing office,
and at the Golden Ball James Craig offered "visual
2 Ibid., 27.
3 Ibid., 37.
Spectacles fit for all ages. " 11
As technology has evolved in modern time,
so have eyeglass styles and designs as well as
advancements in eye examinations. Bifocals became trifocals and then progressives. Clear lenses
4 George Adams, An Essay on Vision ...
7 Ibid., 45 -46.
available light level. Contact lenses eliminated
8 Benjamin Martin, An Essay on Visual Glasses, ( vul-
frames altogether offering both vision correction
They say that the eyes are the windows of the
soul, animating the face and reflecting personal-
ity, and so their care was always paramount with
problem -ree sight both a desire and a necessity.
f
Benjamin Martin summed it up this way: " For as
the Sight is the most noble and extensive of all
our Senses, as we make the most frequent and
Lon-
5 Corson, 73 -74.
6 Ibid., 77.
darkened automatically according to current
and even a temporary change in eye color.
intended for the
Service of those whose Eyes are Weak or Impaired ... (
don: for the author by R. Hindmarsh, 1789), 96 -97.
garly called Spectacles) ... (
London: printed for the author,
1756), 22.
9 J. William Rosenthal, MD, Spectacles and Other Visual
Aids ( San Francisco: Norman Publishing, 1996), 271.
10 Virginia Gazette ( Purdie &
Dixon), April 11, 1771.
See also the following John Greenhow advertisements in
Purdie & Dixon Virginia Gazettes: September 19, 1766, June
4, 1767, December 3, 1767, September 29, 1768, December
12, 1771.
constant Use of our Eyes in all the Actions and
11 Ibid., April 7, 1768.
Concerns of human Life, surely that which re-
12 Martin, 4.
lieves the Eyes when decayed and supplies their
Defects rendering them useful when almost useless must needs of all others be esteemed of the
greatest Advantage. "12
Bothy's Mould
Presenting the latest dirt (mould)
from the gardener' s hut ( bothy).
Dung
by Wesley Greene
Ca
and Barrow
Wesley is a garden historian in the Landscape Department. You can often find him in costume work-
aggregates, the property that gives what we would
call a good tilth to the soil. At about the same
ing in the Colonial Garden across the street from
time it was recognized that land which supported
Bruton Parish Church.
herds of animals improved in fertility and different
dungs or animal manures came into use.
The earliest centers of agriculture were devel-
oped near rivers. Mesopotamia, meaning " land
Pliny writes in Natural History ( circa 72 CE):
There are several varieties of dung, and its ac-
between the rivers," was located between the
tual employment dates ...
Tigris and the Euphrates rivers that provided
The invention of this procedure is traditionally
ascribed to King Augeas in Greece, and its
introduction in Italy to Hercules, though Italy
not only irrigation but nutrients in the form of
alluvial deposits from annual flooding. As civilization expanded away from the river basins, the
first efforts at maintaining or supplementing soil
fertility began to appear.
as far back as Homer.
has immortalized Stercutus son of Faunus on
account of this invention.
Some of the earliest attempts to improve soils
Homer's Odyssey, written sometime between
900 and 700 BCE, mentions dung piles and the
mirrored the natural alluvial process in which dif-
manuring of vineyards. Theophrastus ( 371 - 287
ferent soils, most notably marl soils, were used as
BCE), successor to Aristotle and considered the
manures. These are limestone soils that not only
father of botany, recommended manuring some
soils at different rates depending on soil structure
and also suggested including stable bedding as
provide minerals, particularly calcium and mag-
nesium, but also condition soils by promoting soil
�20
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
a compost. Xenophon, the Greek philosopher/
It was also necessary to let animal manure rot
soldier from circa 400 BCE recognized that any
so that calcination might occur as explained by
kind of vegetation can be turned into manure,
Laurence:
much like the compost gardeners make today
Dung till Calcination, or perfect Rottenness,
from yard and kitchen scraps.
Manure's physical contribution to the soil has
will afford little or no Salt... And therefore if
they do not imbibe the Nitre or Spirit of the
Air, I do not see how or which way they can
long been readily apparent to the gardener. Its
chemical contribution to the soil and the physi-
be useful, in the Improvement of Land. 4
ological process of plant nutrition and growth was
The earth's nitre was often described as a salt.
not fully understood until the twentieth century.
Writers from the time of Pliny until the eighteenth century attributed the benefits of manure
as a host to the "spirits" naturally found within the
J. R. Glauber ( 1604- 1668), a German chemist, theorized that saltpeter was the " principle
of vegetation." He was able to collect saltpeter
soil, air and water. Pliny referred to this miracu-
from the soil under the pens of animals which he
postulated came from the plants the animals ate.
lous property of the earth in the first century CE
He then applied saltpeter to plants and demon-
when he writes: " It is the prayer of trees and crops
strated a marked increase in growth. Saltpeter, or
in common that snow may lie a long time. The
reason is not only because snow shuts in and imprisons the earth's breath when it is disappearing
by evaporation, and drives it back into the roots
potassium nitrate, is a potent fertilizer which explains the rapid growth Glauber observed. Laurence also observed that the salt concentrated
of the vegetation to make strength." The " earth's
from composted manure was a vital ingredient
in plant nutrition and helped explain the virtue
breath" is the aroma we are all familiar with after
of animal manures:
The earth
Although the Use of Dung towards Vegeta-
then sends out that divine breath of hers, of quite
incomparable sweetness, which she has conceived
tion is not perhaps thoroughly understood; yet
from the sun."
etate Plants is some Salt, I suppose is gener-
a rain shower or as Pliny describes: "
In 1727 John Laurence called this property:
The Nitre or Spirit of the Air, which flies about
here and there as the Wind directs it, where -ever
it finds a kind Matter fit to receive it, there it
abides till the Dews and Rains wash it in."
John
Hill calls it the " Principle of Vegetation" in 1753
and records that it is: "
Lodg'd in the Earth itself,
and in the Aire and Rains. "2
that what does most apparently seem to vegAnd he [ John Eveyln] believes
that were Nitre or Salt Peter to be obtained in
ally agreed ...
Plenty, we should need but little other Composts, to meliorate our Ground. 5
This observation foreshadows the development
of modern synthetic fertilizers.
While most gardeners believed that the earth
was primarily responsible for plant growth, others
The belief that the principle of vegetation was
believed water was the most important ingredient.
lodged in the earth was the primary explanation
Francis Bacon ( 1561 - 1624) theorized that water
was the principal nourishment for plants but also
believed that each plant drew from the soil, and
for the benefits of tilling, or breaking the soil into
smaller particles. Hill gives this advice to the
gardener:
eventually exhausted, unique properties that ex-
He plows it deep and well, and after some
plained why growing the same plant continuously
Months he repeats that Labour: thus the Mould
is broken, the Air, Sun, Rains and Dews,
for that particular plant and hence, the benefit of
on the same plot of ground impoverished the soil
Nature' s own Manure, are admitted freely;
the clods are calcin' d by the Sun and Wind,
crop rotation that had been long recognized.
mellow'd by the Dews, and dissolved by Rains.
Flemish physician and chemist, proposed a " The-
The Spade is the Gardener's Plow, and it is a
ory of Elements" that rejected the ancient four el-
better Instrument.3
ements of earth, air, fire, and water that had been
Most writers assumed that plants imbibed small
Jan Baptiste van Helmont ( 1577 - 1644),
a
the explanation of all earthly substances since the
portions of the soil, a further reason for break-
time of Aristotle. He recognized only two, air and
ing it finely and it was this belief that produced
the horse drawn cultivator, invented by Jethro
water. Air he viewed as a matrix of gases ( van
Tull ( 1674- 1741). Tull believed that pulver-
vented the word " gas" from the Greek chaos) but
izing the soil provided the " proper pabulum"
did not understand the chemistry of individual
gases, how they interacted or how they impacted
or nourishment, to the plants. Pulverizing, or
tilling the soil is a very good way of stimulating
Helmont claimed, perhaps truthfully, to have in-
plant or animal life. All other elements, he pro-
plant growth because, we now know, it aids in
the release of chemical nutrients bound to the
posed, were simply modified forms of water.
soil particles.
of soil into a clay pot and planted a willow shoot
To demonstrate this he measured 200 pounds
�21
Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
weighing exactly 5 pounds into it. After five years
he extracted a willow tree weighing 169 lbs., 3 oz.,
but could only account for a loss of 2 ounces from
lands is marle, which is of various kinds, viz. the
grey marle, blue marle, yellow marl, red marle." 7
the soil, easily within the range of experimental
The primary purpose of marl, as we understand it
today, is in altering soil pH. Marl works the same
error, which he attributed it to, and thus declared
way that agriculture lime works to raise soil pH
that water was the sole plant nutrient.
and thereby increasing soil nutrient availability.
While none of these theories is correct, they
all are
accurate
observations of plant responses
Pliny credits northern Europeans with this discovery: " There is another method, discovered by
to environmental elements and all represent ad-
the provinces of Britain and those of Gaul, the
vances in scientific methodology. In some cases,
method of feeding the earth by means of itself,
such as Pliny's connection of the "earth's breath"
and the kind of soil called marl, "8
The individual benefits and uses of animal
and the sun, these theories are remarkably astute
as we now recognize that all life processes on
earth originate with the energy of the sun.
The first scientist to propose that plants
manures, or dung, are also ranked by all authors
from Pliny's time to the present. Pliny records:
Marcus Varro gives the first rank to thrushes;
received their nourishment from both the air
droppings from aviaries. Columella puts ma-
and water was the English physiologist, Stephen
nure from dovecotes first, and next manure
Hales ( 1671- 1761). He demonstrated that plants
from the poultry -yard, condemning the droppings of water birds entirely. The rest of the
authorities advocate the residue of human
banquets as one of the best manures, and
some place even higher the residue of men's
drink. Next to this kind of manure the dung of
swine is highly commended, Columella alone
condemning it. Next comes the dung of goats,
after that sheeps' clung, then cow -dung and
last of all that of beasts of burden.
transpire water through their leaves and that this
respiration corresponds with water uptake by the
roots. He also speculated that: "plants very probably draw through their leaves some part of their
nourishment from the air."6 Hales, however, did
not understand the elements of the atmosphere
responsible for plant growth and it was only after
Priestley's discovery of oxygen in 1774 that the
chemical basis for life started to be formulated.
For those who have forgotten their plant
There are extensive recommendations for
physiology it is now understood that well over
the uses of different dungs in eighteenth -century
90 percent of a plants dry weight is composed of
English garden works. Philip Miller writes in
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These elements
are obtained from soil water ( H2O) and atmo-
1768: " Dungs are designed to repair the decays
of exhausted or worn out lands, and to cure the
defects of land ... some dungs are hot and light,
spheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Through photosynthesis these elements are rearranged to form
carbohydrates ( CH2O) and oxygen ( 02) which
as that of sheep, horses, pigeons, &
c.
others
again are fat and cooling, as that of oxen, cows,
makes life for the rest of us animals possible.
hogs, & c. "9
The twenty- first -century gardener considers
synthetic fertilizers to be a temporary form of providing soil fertility, while composts are considered
a more lasting fertilizer. It is interesting that the
heavy soils and cooling dungs for light soils.
He recommends hot dungs for
Samuel Cooke gives similar advice in 1780:
Horse -dung best suits cold soils, and cow -dung
the loose burning ones; sheep -dung suits most
soil. . . .
Hogs -dung was formerly rejected
from the notion of it producing weeds, but it is
eighteenth- century gardener considered manure
compost as a temporary form of fertilizer, while
adding other soils to the land was considered a
permanent manure." An entry in the 1776 Farm-
now found to be perhaps the richest and fattest
of any we have ... a little of it suffices. Fowls
and pigeons, living principally upon grain,
dung makes a very warm manure but cannot
ers Magazine, published in London, records:
Those manures which I call temporary do not
change the nature of the soil, but fertilize it
well be obtained in large quantities. 10
only, and thereby enable it to produce a course
In urban centers and in the market gardens that
of crops; after which the land is left nearly in
grew up around them, horse dung is, by far, the
the same condition as it was before the ma-
most common. Abercrombie writes in 1789: " But
Clay, marle, and chalk, essentially
as horse stable dung is easily obtained, almost every
where, and many have it abundantly from their
nure....
change the nature of the soil.
A number of different clays are used according
to the type of ground being manured. Richard
Bradley writes in 1727: " When I speak here of
own horse stables; and, besides, when it has effected its office from hot - eds, and becomes rotten,
b
it becomes most excellent manure for the Kitchen
clays for manure, I would rather chuse the yellow,
Garden. "11 As early as 1716 stable manure was
red, or white clay, than the blue clay." He also rec-
a
ognizes several marls: " The next manure for light
around London as John Worlidge explains:
marketable product
to
the
market gardeners
�22
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Horse -Dung is the most common of any
MR SYLVAN, Some time ago as I was travelling
Dung whatsoever, by reason that Horses are
the great western road, I could not help taking
notice of a farmer ploughing in a fine luxuriant
crop of clover by way of manuring his land... .
most kept in Stables, and their Soil preserved,
yielding a considerable price in most places;
the higher the Horses are fed, the better is the
I must confess that I was rather astonished at
Dung by far. 12
it, for I thought that this outlandish, wasteful,
Most authors account for the differences in the
various dungs by what and how the animal eats.
slovenly piece of husbandry had long since been
abolished ...
certainly sheep might have been
Laurence tells us in 1727: " Now a great deal of
folded upon it, and then the farmer would have
Difference from Dung may arise by reason of the
manner of Chewing. Those Beast that chew fin-
reaped a double benefit. I am, & c. VIATOR.
To this the editor replies in agreement:
est, and void it in smallest Quantities, leave the
The Flemings were undoubtable the first who
most Superficies, whereby most Nitre may be at-
ploughed in living crops to manure ...
tracted. "13 All authors also cite the importance of
composting it first. Bradley writes: `By experience
I find that no kind of dung ought to be used till it
is like earth it self. "14
There are some hazards in the use of manure
however cogent their reason might be, we cannot
help joining issue with Viator in thinking, that
in the present improved state of agriculture
this practice is a shrewd sign of inattention
and bigotry.
that are recognized by a number of authors. John
Composted vegetable material is mentioned
Laurence gives a number of reasons for the del-
by many authors as a type of manure but is
eterious effects of dung in 1716, most significant
is that dung: " mightly fills the Place with many
generally considered the poorest of the manures.
Philip Miller writes in 1768: " There are some
noxious Weeds. "15 This is particularly true for
who have directed the use of torrent leaves of
fresh horse dung which will introduce many
vegetables, as an excellent ingredient in most
weed seeds to the garden.
Dunging and trenching the garden is a winter
job. John Abercrombie writes in 1789:
DUNG for manure, wheel on at all oplet the
portunities of dry frosty weather ...
dung be digged in regularly, one spade deep,
and generally dig or trench the ground up in
composts; but from many years experience, I can
affirm, they are of little use, and contain the least
quantity of vegetable pasture. "19
Composts of manure, soil, ash, and various
other substances are frequently recommended,
particularly for container plants as related by
Miller in 1768: " The great use of composts is for
rough ridges in order that it may mellow and
such plants as are preserved in pots or tubs." Hill
improve more effectually. 16
gives us this elaborate formula for raising Hyacinths:
Dung can also be applied as a manure tea as
we hear from Bradley:
I have observed that dungs, such as that of
sheep, deer, pigeon, and hens, have been good
helps to land when they have lain a long time
in pits of water, and then the water taken out,
Throw upon an open expos' d Spot of Ground
one Load of common Mould: add to it a Load
of dry Mud from the Bottom of standing
Water, and three quarters of a Load of Willow
Earth: mix this together, and then add to them
half a Load of Sea -Sand, taken wet from the
and put in tubs, which being wheeled on the
Shore; and half a load of rotted Cow Dung:
land, and those lands sprinkled with the im-
stir up all these together, sprinkle a little Water
pregnated water. 17
over the Surface, and lay them up in a Heap.
Most authors record human dung as one of
the richest. Bradley writes:
Break this Heap once in four Days, and in a
Fortnight's Time it will be fit for Use.
orange, and citron- trees, and is sold there at a
In the American colonies the practice of Bunging agricultural fields was not nearly as common as
it was in England, mostly because the abundance
very dear rate; it fertilizes land extremely. That
of land encouraged a sort of " slash and bum"
which has lain for four years is considered the
agriculture in which new land was continually
opened up as older fields became less productive.
Human ordure is much used in Italy, and the
South parts of France, for their vines, and
best and the composters prefer that which they
bring from places where the most flesh is eaten.
In twelfth-century Moorish Spain, Ibn al -Awwam
writes that laborers should be encouraged to uri-
nate in the compost pits.18
In a 1793 letter to George Washington on the
economy of farming Thomas Jefferson observes:
Manure does not enter into this, because we can
buy an acre of new land cheaper than we can ma-
The plowing in of cover crops to provide a
nure an old acre." However, in the longer settled
green manure has been practiced for thousands
areas of Tidewater Virginia, soil fertility was an
of years but is viewed as a wasteful process by a
important part of maintaining a plantation. In
writer to the Farmers Magazine in 1776:
1757 Landon Carter records the benefit of dung:
�23
Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
having now experienced the great advantage .. .
to my Lands as well as profitable to my self by
American cities. Perhaps the best known and most
making good reasonable Crops of tobacco, wheat,
was a New Jersey gardener named Peter Henderson
and Oats when I could hardly make corn before, I
intend to put my Cowyards into order." He then
details plans for constructing moveable pens for
his cattle to manage the dung.
In 1758 Carter recorded gathering —from all
of his farms - 828 Loads of dung. His carts had the
capacity of 40 bushels each, which would equal
whose market garden was located across the sound
33, 120 total bushels. This, in turn, is equal to
41, 069 cubic feet of manure or enough manure to
cover a football field, goal line to goal line, a little
better than ten inches deep. Certainly a lot of dung
but when we consider the hundreds of acres he is
farming it is a small amount to maintain fertility.
Even Jefferson, regardless of what he might
tell Mr. Washington, was very aware of the benefits of manuring fields. Just a few days after he
had advised Washington that manuring lands
accomplished nineteenth-century market gardener
from New York City, which provided his principal
market and source for manure. He records using between 75 and 100 tons of manure per acre, per year;
all coming off of the streets of New York.22 Barges
would carry cabbages from New Jersey and return
with manure from New York. New Jersey officials
cannot say for certain where the name " Garden
State" originated but it could very well have been
from the extensive market gardens that grew up on
the Jersey shore in the nineteenth century.
By the twentieth century, one of the marketing
claims from Ford Motor Company was that the
new automobiles were friendly to the environment because cars did not leave manure behind!
A single horse will generate about 20 pounds
was not economic Jefferson wrote a letter to Dr.
of dung per day. The best estimate of the horse
population in New York City after the Civil War
George Logan ( July 1, 1793) asking: " If sheep,
is between 100 and 200,000. A calculation using
instead of cattle should be made the principal
the lower estimate yields about 2 million lbs of
object, what number of sheep was equivalent to a
dung per day. It was such an important disposal
young, for making
problem that the " dirt carters" who removed the
given number of cattle old &
Manure ?" Dr. Logan had determined that 150
manure were licensed beginning in 1818. One
head of cattle would manure 60 acres per year.
Because of the scale of American agriculture
hundred years later Mr. Ford found the cure in his
and the smaller population centers there was never
Once again mankind had solved one problem, and created the next.
an abundance of dung in the colonies when com-
environmentally responsible automobile.
pared to European cities and agricultural centers.
George Washington writes to William Pierce on
1 John Laurence, A New System of Agriculture, 1727.
November 24, 1793: " As my farms stand much in
2 John Hill, Eden: or, A Compleat Body of Garden -
need of manure, and it is difficult to raise a suffi-
ciency of it on them; and the Land besides requires
something to loosen and ameliorate it, I mean to go
largely ... upon Buck Wheat as a Green manure."
Green manures, considered inferior in England,
were likely more common in the colonies for this
reason. Jefferson also employs buckwheat as a cover
crop and advises Thomas Mann Randolph on July
28, 1793 to follow the wheat crop with: "A green
dressing of buckwheat, and, in the succeeding winter put on what dung you have. "
For the kitchen gardener the availability of
dung in adequate quantities was much easier to
obtain, particularly in urban centers such as Williamsburg. John Randolph recommends laying the
dung on in January: " I would advise the preparing
of your dung, and carrying it to your beds, that it
may be ready to spread on in February. "20 Across
town, Joseph Prentis gets off to an earlier start:
Such of the Garden as may be vacant should be
ing, 1753.
3 Ibid.
4 Laurence, A New System of Agriculture, 1727.
5 Ibid.
6 Stephen Hales, Vegetable Staticks, 1727.
7 Richard Bradley, A Complete Body of Husbandry, 1727.
8 Pliny, Natural History, ca. 70 CE ( Rackham translation).
9 Philip Miller, The Gardeners Dictionary, 1768.
10 Samuel Cooke The Compleat English Gardener, 1780.
11 John Laurence, The Gentleman's Recreation, 1716.
12 John Worlidge, A Compleat System of Husbandry, 1716.
13 Laurence, A New System of Agriculture, 1727.
14 Bradley, A Complete Body of Husbandry, 1727.
15 Laurence, The Gentleman's Recreation, 1716.
16 John Abercrombie, The Universal Gardener's Calendar,
1789.
17 Bradley, A Complete Body of Husbandry, 1727.
18 Susan Campbell, Charleston Kedding, 1996.
well manured in October and also well spaded
19 Miller, The Gardeners Dictionary, 1768.
that it may have the advantage of fallow from the
20 John Randolph, A Treatise on Gardening, 1793.
sun, snow, and air of the winter season. "21
In the next century market gardens, fueled
with urban manure, sprang up around all the large
21 Joseph Prentis, The Monthly Kalendar &
Garden Book,
1775 - 1779.
22 Peter Henderson, Gardening for Profit, 1867.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
24
Some More Fun Things to Do With Your Food
by Jim Gay
Jim is a journeyman in Historic Foodways in the Department of Historic Trades.
A few issues ago, I presented some translated
eighteenth- century recipes that were fun to prepare and even better to eat. The following recipes are a continuation on that theme with some
so little. Each pair of hands, each nose, each
palate, is going to react just a bit differently.
The Chinese call it `wok presence.' 2
The following are some eighteenth- and early
new elements thrown in. In a paper written two
nineteenth century recipes
decades ago, historian Karen Hess wrote,
some key procedure in order to work. The solutions provided are my own. Perhaps yours might
The story of cookery is in the recipes... .
A culinary historian reads recipes much as a
that are
missing
work better. Let's see.
musicologist reads music. It is not essential to
be a virtuoso performer, but it takes years of
drudgery, as well as a bit of flair, to be able to
Eggs in Croquets3
grasp the structure of a work, to understand
its characterizing aspects, simply by reading
the directions, whether the work be culinary
cut them in dice, pour over them a sauce a -la -creme
recipe follows], add a little grated bread, mix all
well together, and let it get cold: put in some salt and
or musical. l
pepper, make them into cakes, cover them well on
Boil eighteen eggs, separate the yolks and whites and
But what happens if the directions don' t work;
when the recipe leads to failure? The cook,
and fry them a nice brown; dry them a little before
both sides with grated bread, let them stand an hour,
then as now, has to be willing to experiment to
the fire, and dish them while quite hot.
be successful and read between the lines when
necessary.
Eighteenth -century recipes were written for
Sauce a - creme4
la
result than a detailed step -by -step procedure.
Put a quarter of a pound of butter with a large table
spoonful of flour rubbed well into it, in a sauce pan,
add some chopped parsley, a little onion, salt, pepper, nutmeg and a gill of cream; stir it over a fire
On the other hand, modern recipes tend to
until it begins to boil.
people who already knew how to cook. They
are more a description of the process and the
be little scientific experiments complete with
precise measurements, cooking times, and tem-
One of the first things that you have to con-
peratures, along with color pictures of the result.
But would the same recipe prepared
sider with this recipe is the number of eggs. Just
by a cook in Texas taste exactly
how many little cakes do you
want to make? Do you really
the same as one from a cook in
want to use a dozen and a half
Virginia? Probably not. Hess
eggs? In the eighteenth cen-
wrote,
tury century, eggs didn't come
Now, even highly trained
to you in uniform sizes. They
chefs, schooled in the same
didn't have Grade A Jumbos.
tradition, and each follow-
Big chickens lay big eggs,
little chicken lay little
ing the same recipe,
ones. So let's just work
are going to produce
dishes that vary one
from the other, be it by
WY
with
ten
dium size.
eggs,
all
me-
�25
Vol. 30, No. 1, Spring 2009
Next, we boil the eggs. Having said that, it's
amazing how many people believe eggs have to
boil continuously for fifteen minutes. Usually,
sides. Apply a little pressure on the patties to get
the bread crumbs to stick. Make sure that they
are uniformly coated with crumbs on both sides.
this method overcooks them. It's better to treat
Whether you choose to make your own bread
eggs like, ah ...
eggs. Simply put them in a pan
with cold water covering them. Bring the eggs to
crumbs or buy them in a store is up to you. In
Historic Foodways, we bake bread constantly,
a boil, and then set them aside off the heat for
and the vast majority of it goes into making
bread crumbs for puddings, coatings, and stuff-
fifteen minutes. Keep the pan covered. Don't
worry; they still cook even off the heat. Then,
stop the cooking by putting them in cold water.
Using this method, your yolks will be perfectly
yellow. If the yolks have a greenish tint on the
outside, they are overcooked.
The direction to separate
the yolks and
whites and then dice them is an unnecessary
step. Simply peel the eggs and mince the yolks
ings. I prefer to use fresh bread for crumbs.
The real key to this recipe is to let the patties
get cold before you fry them. At home, I would
refrigerate them for an hour. They will hold
together better if they go cold into the frying
pan. Whether you use butter or lard is up to you.
A neutral flavored heart friendly vegetable oil
won't give you the flavor that butter will. The
la- creme. This sauce is actually from another
trick to frying them is to be gentle. There isn't
much holding them together so cook them on
one side and carefully flip them once. They are
very fragile when hot. Use a spatula larger than
recipe in which you bake sliced boiled eggs
the individual egg croquette or it will break
sort of like a baked egg
apart when it's time to take it out of the pan.
salad. The thing that can throw you off is misin-
The reward in all of this is the eating. They are
terpreting the amount of flour required. Just how
delicious!
much flour is a " large table spoonful ?"Remember, standard measures like cups, teaspoons, and
sake of historical accuracy, sometimes there
and whites together. Make your mince very
small and uniform.
The binder for this recipe is the sauce a-
mixed with the sauce ...
tablespoons hadn't been invented yet. Actually,
for a recipe like this, it's better to think of weight
rather than volume. The required amount of
flour for this recipe is about equal to the amount
of butter by weight. For this recipe, one- quarter
pound of butter and one -quarter pound of flour
are about right.
The sauce also calls for onion. Here it's up
Although we will follow the recipe for the
just isn' t enough information to be successful.
Sometimes, the recipe has added steps that are
meaningless. Then, we have to look behind the
written word or look for another recipe from
another author to provide a better picture.
Sometimes, we have to extrapolate from one
recipe and apply it to another. Such is the case
for the following:
to the cook to decide whether green onions or
white onions are better. Since you are also add-
Cabbage, with Onions6
ing chopped parsley ( and parsley is green), my
Boil them separately, and mix them in the propor-
preference is for two or three green onions finely
minced. But the amount of minced parsley,
onion, and grated bread in the sauce is strictly
either stew them or fry them in a cake.
This recipe is almost Zen -like in its brevity.
up to you. I suggest a handful of each. And don' t
forget the salt and pepper. A liberal sprinkling
bage and onion mixture maybe to be served with
of each is critical to this dish. Eggs, cream, and
bread taste pretty bland by themselves, so the
seasonings are really important here. Nutmeg
is the other spice called for. As usual, freshly
tions you like; add butter, pepper, and salt, and
It has the potential for making a hash -like cabcomed beef, or a stewed veggie mixture fried
into " cakes" or patties like potato pancakes.
grated nutmeg is much more powerful than the
Only five ingredients are mentioned —two in
the title, and three more in the text. Boiling,
stewing, and frying are the cooking methods
store bought pre -ground stuff. For this recipe, a
mentioned. But, please consider the information
small amount equivalent to half a nutmeg ( 1/4 to
that is missing. There is no discussion of the type
l
teaspoon) is about right. Lastly, the amount
of cabbage or onion, quantities of butter, salt
of cream called for is a gill. When this recipe was
and pepper. If you fry them, how do you bind
written, gill was understood to mean 4 ounces
the wet ingredients together without causing a
by volume.5
mess or a fire? All of this is open to the cook's
When the sauce is done, add the minced
eggs and let the whole mass cool to the touch.
interpretation. Here are some suggestions:
Make up little patties about three inches across
recommend one medium size green cabbage and
and 34 inch thick. Put them into a flat pan full
of grated bread crumbs and coat them on both
As far as quantities of cabbage and onion, I
about an equal quantity ( by volume) of white or
yellow onion. You could use a purple onion or
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
26
even a modem sweet onion ( like a Vidalia) if
you choose. Mary Randolph even leaves it up to
you to adjust the recipe to your preference.
Although the recipe doesn' t address it, it's
the flour. Mix the veggies into the batter and
combine them well. Melt either butter or lard in
a frying pan to fill it about 1/ inch. Using about
l/ cup of the mixture per cake, cook the cakes
best to cut the cabbage and onions into 'h inch
until brown on both sides.
strips so that the veggies mix together. Boil the
cover them. Whether you boil them separately
as directed by the recipe) or not really makes
Are all eighteenth- century recipes as cryptic
as these? No. But we continually add to our
knowledge base with experimentation and repetition. Hess writes, " The story of cookery is in
no difference. What you do next depends on
the recipes, if we but had them all. This is the
how you intend to serve them.
How much butter and other seasonings will depend on the total amount of veggies you have and
your own personal preference. A piece of butter
most serious limitation in our work. The cook-
ery of entire civilizations has perished without
written trace, and the cookery of the poor has ever
the "size of a hen's egg" or up to 4 ounces could fill
so much was never recorded ...
the bill. After you drain them, return the veggies
been lost, that our understanding of the cuisine
is bound to be slightly skewed, not only by rea-
veggies until tender using just enough water to
to the pan, add the butter, salt and pepper. Cover
the pan and let the butter melt for a few minutes.
been ill recorded. Even when we have records .. .
and so much has
son of the gaps but by the idiosyncratic aspects
of our sources. Still we must work with what we
Then stir everything together and serve.
This recipe is pretty simple and straight forward if you ignore the phrase " or fry them in a
have, filling in the gaps as best we can, drawing
on the work of ancillary disciplines to supple-
cake." If you choose to make cabbage cakes, then
ment and illuminate our own scanty findings. "7
several more steps are required. Our solution in
Historic Foodways is to fry them in a pancakelike batter. Although you boil the cabbage and
onion as before, you need the batter to hold
the cakes together. This means that the veggies
1 Hess, Karen, " Changing Patterns in Tideland Virginia
Cookery: The Early Days to the Nineteenth Century"
paper presented at the Colonial Williamsburg Foodways
have to be as dry as possible in order for the bat-
Research Planning Conference, Williamsburg, Va., April
21 - 25, 1987), p. 1.
ter to adhere. Drain the cooked veggies in a col-
ander and add salt to help sweat out more of the
water. Press them with a weight like the bottom
of a fry pan to extract as much liquid as possible.
Let them drain for about thirty minutes. Then
2. Hess, p. 9.
3 Randolph, Mary, Virginia House -Wife, a facsimile of
the first edition, 1824, along with additional material from
the editions of 1825 and 1828 with historical Notes and
make a batter to use as a binder.
Commentaries by Karen Hess ( Colombia, S. C.: University
of South Carolina Press, 1984), p. 101.
Two eggs, a pint of milk or cream,
4 Randolph, p. 105.
and enough flour stirred together
works well. In order to adhere to
the recipe, add melted butter along
with salt and pepper before you add
5 Randolph, p. 298.
6 Randolph, p. 136.
7 Hess, p. 2.
�Publication of
this issue of the Interpreter
was made possible
by a gift from
James H. and Sherry P. Hubbard
of Severna Park, Maryland
Editor' s Notes
Name correction to page
1
of the Winter
2008/ 2009 issue of the Interpreter noting coffeehouse benefactors Forrest and Deborah Mars.
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter is published
three times a year by the Research and Historical
Interpretation Division.
Acting Editor:
Linda Rowe
Editorial Board:
Emma L. Powers, Cathy Hellier,
Kevin Kelly, Lorena Walsh
Planning Board: Laura Arnold, Harvey Bakari,
Bertie Byrd, Bob Doares,
Jan Gilliam, Wesley Greene,
Andrea Squires, John Turner,
Ron Warren, Pete Wrike
Production:
The Marketing Creative
Services Department
Diana Freedman
2009 The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. All rights reserved.
All images are the property of
The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, unless otherwise noted.
��
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter, volume 30, number 1, Spring 2009
Description
An account of the resource
As the Dust Settles: An Update from the Department of Architectural and Archaeological Research: More than Memory: Representing an African American Neighborhood at the Ravenscroft Site -- Coffee, Tea, Chocolate: Not Just For Breakfast -- New at the Rock: New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library's Special Collections -- Questions and Answers -- ‘... Of the Greatest Advantage’: A Brief History of Eyeglasses through the Eighteenth Century -- The Bothy’s Mould: Dung -- Cook’s Corner: Some More Fun Things to Do With Your Food
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/6815d413892b1424aa3545cb4046f984.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=H38LsUuTRxPF6CDQUI3bnHPW-IjoMQrYozXMBIWL1K6Lw-Bc-FDrdJZVFntQBCiNi0xn6sOs2pJdx7gDuvPlK6ZLQGRCAGZZDno1vqXtTF7QThzu036kLM4elF9ilWL6oy20fqw7Lng-94EmmhnQzj8TF1UcHw%7Ex6cZY-pio1dv7eO51fup8VZFvu0RZ1IGGhBD0YNNMgCbCrAZXgHz%7ELyPWk7qJs35Gi6udYb3VsrIJlXH1Rt4ZE4whOf4VAD-Vs8JDACNcFvg2pjEqyq11dy4ShdDuCfwcw0WW7VfqCaSL8fnwi5bxznqxPysm%7EOtsm9tPTDp0PHen478PGvLZ%7Eg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
07a789c210db3693d66ca03f07b94bf4
PDF Text
Text
COLONIAL
WILLIAMSBURG
WINTER 2008/ 2009
VOL. 29, NO. 3
Charlton's Coffeehouse Archaeology
by Mark Kostro, Andrew Edwards, arid Meredith Poole
Mark is a project archaeologist, Andy is a staff
archaeologist, and Meredith is a staff archaeologist
and coordinator of public programs.
A plan for the reconstruction of Charlton's
Coffeehouse, a hotbed of political, business,
and social activity in the 1760s adjacent to
the colonial Capitol, became a reality earlier
this year with a generous gift from long -time
Colonial Williamsburg benefactors Forest and
Deborah Mars. The new building will sit atop
original eighteenth- century foundations and
will be the first ground -up reconstruction along
Duke of Gloucester Street in several decades.
The project also includes reconstruction of a
small outbuilding associated with the Coffeehouse, as well as the re- establishment of the
eighteenth -century landscape as close as historical,
archaeological, and architectural
evidence
permits. When completed, the Coffeehouse will
be the only one of its kind in the United States,
and visitors will have the opportunity to enjoy
hot tea, coffee, chocolate, and pastries in a real-
istic mid eighteenth century setting.
Major features indentified at the Coffeehouse between
1996 and 1998.
Also in this issue .. .
The Coffeehouse reconstruction is a product
of over a decade of interdisciplinary research by
Resurrecting Charlton's Coffeehouse"
by E. Chappell
7
English Coffeehouses" by E. L. Powers
17
The Staff of Life —Bread!!" by D. Cotner19
the Foundation's archaeologists, architectural historians, and historians. Between 1996 and 1998,
soon after the removal of the 1890 Cary Peyton
Armistead house from the property, archaeologists
launched an extensive examination of the site.
The first summer's excavation ( 1996) focused
Meanwhile, Back Across the Atlantic:
Great Britain and Europe in the War Years
1778- 1783"
22
Q & A" by B. Doares
24
Bothy's Mould: Wasps, Birds, and Earwigs
The Orchard" by W. Greene
28
Interpreter's Comer: A Gonzales Fund Report"
on architectural questions, particularly on the
appearance of the Coffeehouse structure. An
examination of the foundation revealed that the
north and west walls and a fragment of the south
wall were part of the lot's original structure built
in 1750 by Robert Crichton as a storehouse and
by D. McKelvey
32
sold to Nathaniel Walthoe soon afterward. It
New at the Rock" by D. Mayo
33
was converted for use as a coffeehouse sometime
before the mid- 1760s. Projected dimensions from
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
2
Brief Eighteenth- Century History of the Coffeehouse Property
The Coffeehouse property, on the east
side of colonial lot # 58, was an important
and recognizable location to Williamsburg's
eighteenth century inhabitants. It was, in
many respects, the best and the worst of locations. Its position just outside the Capitol
35 foot eastern square which in 1750 was sold
to Robert Crichton. Although records for the
period between 1739 and 1750 are virtually
non existent, it is clear that by 1750 there
were two buildings on lot #58: a tavem run by
the Burdett family on the western half and a
gates was dearly advantageous, particularly for
a business. Successive owners of the property
storehouse on the tiny eastem portion.
were challenged, however, by severely slop-
cords agree that sometime before 1765 the
Both the archaeological and historical re-
ing topography that placed most of the lot at
storehouse" was converted for use as a cof-
the bottom of a wet ravine. Because of this
constraint, the Coffeehouse lot was among
feehouse. It was from the porch of this establishment that, in 1765, Lt. Governor Francis
the last in town to be developed, despite its
Fauquier escorted George Mercer, chief dis-
proximity to the Capitol.
tributor of the stamps for the colony, to the
The first owner of lot #58, Francis Sharpe,
safety of the Palace during a Stamp Act riot
purchased the property in 1713. Failing to
in the street outside the Capitol wall. In 1767,
meet the requirement to build within 24
Charlton advertised that the business formerly
months, Sharpe forfeited his property to the
operated as a coffeehouse was now open as a
city's trustees. In 1717 Sharpe repurchased the
lot, and, in order to avoid both forfeiture and
tavern. Sometime before April 1771, Charlton's tavem closed in this location. Christiana
the ravine, constructed a house along its west -
Campbell rented the space briefly in 1771, but
em edge. Sharpe died in 1739, leaving lot #58
by March of 1772, it had been purchased by
to his sons, William and Francis, Jr. and Jacob.
Charlotte Dickson.
William was allotted the smallest portion, a
were gleaned from the late nineteenth century
archaeologists located just one: an outbuilding
located northeast of the building, deep inside
the ravine. The paucity of outbuildings may
Armistead house. Architectural historians iden-
have had something to do with the size of Char -
tified more than three dozen framing members
lton's lot which ended precisely at the edges
of the 35 ft. x 35 ft. building that occupied it.
these walls indicate that the Coffeehouse measured 35 ft. x 35 ft. Additional physical details
salvaged from the Coffeehouse and reused in the
later building. Rafters, an original window, and a
door helped complete a picture of Richard Char -
lton's establishment as a 11/ story frame building
2
with high - tyle finishes and a low- pitched gable
s
roof.
Once beyond the borders of his Coffeehouse,
the evidence suggests that Charlton pushed
persistently at the edges of his property, moving
some of his activities onto adjacent land held by
other people and the City of Williamsburg.
But while some portions of the Coffeehouse's
Perhaps Charlton's most egregious infraction
framing and foundations had survived into
the late twentieth century, other historically
was a trash dump that began just beyond his
significant features had vanished. The front
the north Excavated by archaeologists in 1997,
porch on which Lt. Governor Francis Fauquier
this trash midden yielded more than 70, 000 ar-
describes sitting with members of the Council at
tifacts, and the answers to a battery of questions
the outbreak of a Stamp Act riot was conspicu-
regarding the Coffeehouse' s operation. Ceramic
ously absent. Excavation in 1996 recovered not
only the brick footings for this porch but also
and glass fragments revealed that differences
between taverns and coffeehouses were not
an apron of ash created over the years as soot
was repeatedly swept off the porch into the
clear cut in eighteenth- century Williamsburg,
and that among hot beverages, tea remained the
yard. This ash shadow enabled archaeologists to
drink of choice at this establishment. Charlton's
determine the overhang of the floorboards, and
serving pieces revealed a certain economy in
from this, to calculate the porch's depth to be
about eight feet.
everyday place settings that was offset by expenditures on specialty pieces: archaeologists recov-
Few outbuildings seem to have populated
ered fragments of elaborate jelly and syllabub
the Coffeehouse lot. Between 1996 and 1998
back wall and extended more than 40 feet to
glasses and a glass pyramid for fancy desserts.
�3
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
18th c. brickwork -.
r 19th c. brickwork
Brick drain
Burdett's
Ordinary
Area 2
Erosion gully
SW
i
rEI
SE
Barrel feature
18th c. brick
retaining wall
Coffeehouse
Area
1
w`
Area 4
Post holes
r
Excavation areas and major features identified at the coffeehouse in the summer of 2008
Though the reconstructed Coffeehouse will
feehouse site. The summer of 1998 was spent
offer light refreshments, Charlton's trash pit in-
searching for a kitchen for this large commercial
dicates a more ambitious menu. Nearly 30,000
establishment. Though unsuccessful in find-
animal bones from the Coffeehouse period reveal
ing an outbuilding beyond the Coffeehouse
a preference among patrons for roasted lamb and
walls, archaeologists discovered a large patch
mutton. Also on the menu were calves heads,
of scorched clay and brick rubble in the base-
hams, and a wide variety of wildlife. The presence
ment under a modern concrete floor. Large -scale
of butchered peacock bones is further evidence of
cooking seems to have taken place in a portion
the high style elite cuisine consumed at Charl-
of the cellar. Evidence of a partition separating
ton's establishment.
the cellar into multiple rooms suggests that, in
The discovery in the trash midden of a human
the absence of a yard, Charlton created several
finger bone fitted with copper wire and several
human vertebrae with dissection marks hints that
separate work spaces beneath, rather than be-
a human skeleton may have been part of a scientific
lecture or display in the Coffeehouse. The trash
arrangement, this may have been the solution
hind, his establishment. Although an unusual
required by the site' s physical limitations.
midden also contained evidence of the strategies
that Charlton employed to maximize his resources.
A wigmaker by trade, Charlton appears to have
offered this service to customers,
based on the recovery of nearly
fifty wig curlers, bone combs, and
a saw used to make those combs.
Renting out rooms or space may
also have eased Charlton's finan-
cial burden. Discovery of a small
furnace and seventeen crucibles
containing trace amounts of gold,
silver, and copper suggests the presence of an assayer ( one who veri-
fies the metal content of coins) on
the property.
The absence of a detached
kitchen remains one of the more
distinctive aspects of the Cof-
Archaeologist Lucie Vinciguerra excavates at the south-
west corner of the Coffeehouse ( Area 1) to expose the
18th -century ground surface around the building.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
4
Summer 2008
With reconstruction now imminent, Founda-
erosion gully to appear along the new building's west side that threatened to undermine
tion archaeologists returned to the site this sum-
its foundations. Accordingly, the retaining wall
mer to further flesh out details of the building's
we found was built soon after the storehouse to
appearance as well as to determine the grade and
allow the ground around the building to be built
look of the surrounding terrain. Furthermore,
up to street level and to inhibit run -off during
the archaeological team needed to determine
if unexcavated portions of the Coffeehouse site
major rain storms.
would be compromised by the reconstruction
Area 2
activities. All portions of the site thus affected
needed to be fully excavated prior to start of any
The area just behind the retaining wall was
also excavated as part of this summer's fieldwork.
earthmoving activities.
While the wall succeeded in keeping soil from
After a ten year hiatus, archaeological work
eroding between the storehouse /Coffeehouse
recommenced at Charlton's Coffeehouse on June
and Edinburgh Castle Tavern, it didn' t keep
the neighbors next door from dumping quite a
18. Several areas around the intact eighteenth -
century foundation walls were selected for further
bit of garbage behind the wall. The result was
work, as well as the entire interior of the cellar.
the accumulation of several layers of mid to late
The Exterior
broken wine bottles, fragments of plates, and
Area 1
butchered animal bone that there was actually
eighteenth century trash so full of oyster shell,
hoped that this 4 by 4 meter ( 13 ft. by 13 ft.)
very little soil. Although the condition, number,
and variety of the artifacts recovered from the
layers that washed up against the building from
area would give us some insight into the char-
next door was spectacular and exciting in itself,
The largest excavation was opened in the
very southwest comer of the property. It was
acter of a ravine that ran through the site prior
it of course told us far more about the neighbors
to the construction of Crichton's Storehouse
in 1750 and how the building was related to
than it did about Charlton.
that topography. In addition to several layers
of fill that included brick rubble, mortar, plaster, oyster shell, and clay, the new excavation
revealed a substantial ( 20 in.-wide) section of
brick retaining wall running in a westerly direction from the front corner of the Coffeehouse
foundations. A look at the 1930s map of the
archaeological work at the Edinburgh Castle
Tavern ( formerly Burdette' s Ordinary) to the
west of the Coffeehouse revealed how the re-
taining wall crossed into the neighboring lot
and connected to the southwest comer of the
tavem. Within a short time, building debris,
clay, soil, and trash were dumped in front of
the retaining wall, raising the level on the
sidewalk side of the property nearly four feet
by the end of the eighteenth century. Analysis
of archaeological deposits against the retaining wall indicate the ravine was verdant with
vines, trees, and shrubs keeping erosion at bay
from the Middle Plantation period until the
storehouse was built in 1750. The very bottom
layer in the ravine was a six -inch thick dark
humic ( organic) sandy topsoil that suggests a
slow and continuous build -up of soil from leaf
mould and rotting plants. Prior to construction
of Crichton's Storehouse, a thick layer of yellow
clay was dumped in the ravine to make a more
level and stable building surface. The storehouse' s construction subsequently changed the
drainage pattern of the ravine, causing a major
Archaeologist Jason Boroughs excavates a layer of broken wine bottles, oyster shells, pottery fragments, and
butchered animal bones dumped behind the retaining
wall between the storehouse /Coffeehouse and Edinburgh
Castle Tavern.
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
5
complete American stoneware jar from a circular barrel -
The barrel -lined feature following excavation. A stain
left by an iron barrel strap is all that remained of the
lined feature in the cellar of the Coffeehouse.
barrel.
Area 3
The Interior
Even though the reconstruction of Charl-
Staff Archaeologist Andrew Edwards unearths a nearly-
Our excavation unit placed at the northwest
ton's Coffeehouse will be a faithful replica of the
comer of the 1750 structure again revealed ex-
original, it is subject to current building codes and
ceptionally deep strata indicative of the ravine's
regulations. In order to accommodate modern
being filled over the course of the eighteenth
duct work, an employee restroom, and mechani-
and nineteenth centuries. The three-foot plus
cal systems necessary for a building open to the
deep excavation indicated that the north wall is
public, the plans require the current cellar floor
five courses of brick deeper than the west wall.
be lowered by more than a foot. This necessitated
The west wall is stepped up a few courses as it
that the whole interior be examined archaeologi-
progresses south towards the street climbing the
cally for traces of interior walls, structural supports,
ravine. Excavations on the interior of the building
drains, and other features before construction be-
at the same comer show that prior to 1750 a layer
gins. At least one feature pre -dating the construc-
of clay fill had been brought in to level that part of
tion of the storehouse /Coffeehouse was known
the yard enough to build a stable foundation.
at that outset of the investigation —a box drain
Area 4
that began at the Edinburgh Castle Tavem next
door, ran across the ravine where the Coffeehouse
Another excavation unit was placed at the
southeast comer of the 1890 Cary Peyton Armistead house foundations. Archaeological ex-
cavation was necessary here because a retaining
wall contemporary with the Victorian house was
to be removed as part of the re- landscaping of the
property. Similar to other areas along the exterior
of the building, the archaeological excavations
building was to be built and into the creek on the
eastern edge of the property. Although a small
portion of the building's interior was previously
excavated, the majority of the interior was not
addressed archaeologically until the beginning of
August of this year.
encountered several feet of soil accumulation.
The interior of the Coffeehouse can be divided into four quadrants:
Southwest. The recent floor level of the south-
Most of it was nineteenth- and twentieth- century
western section of the cellar was approximately
fill that covered a line of postholes for a fenceline
the same as it was in the eighteenth and nine-
running from west to east found at a depth that
teenth centuries and consisted of hard -packed
was ground surface in the mid eighteenth century.
The fence originated at the comer of the Coffee-
sandy /clay subsoil. Near the southwest comer of
the building, a circular barrel -lined feature was
house and extended east into the ravine. Evidence
that some posts were replaced several times sug-
set into the ground. All that remained of the
barrel was a circular stain in the bottom where
gests the fence was a long -standing feature on the
the rim of the barrel sat. Buried within the fea-
landscape limiting access into the property from
the street during the eighteenth century. One
ture was a nearly -complete American stoneware
jar dating to the early nineteenth century. The
of the fenceposts was placed within a filled in
jar was broken in place, but we removed it with
drainage ditch running from the southwest to the
the contents intact to the artifact conservation
northeast, toward the deepest part of the ravine
office at Bruton Heights Education Center. The
where the creek now divides the property from
purpose of the buried barrel inside the building
that of the Secretary's Office.
is not known ( pickles anyone ?).
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
6
Northwest. This portion of the cellar was
built within a gully that ran southwest to
northeast within the ravine. The innovation
nal grade. There were no features to excavate, so
the floor was left as it was found.
What did we learn?
required to construct a building in a ravine was
Construction of the building that became
dramatically illustrated in this area. First, a thick
Charlton's Coffeehouse destabilized the ravine
layer of clay was placed in the ravine to prepare
causing erosion, leading to the construction of
a large retaining wall between it and the Ed-
the area for construction and serve as the floor
surface in the northwest section. After the clay,
the box drain mentioned above was installed
inburgh Castle Tavem to the west. The place-
to carry water from Edinburgh Castle Tavern
ment of the retaining wall in turn resulted in
the ground around the Coffeehouse being raised
through the gully and presumably to the creek
several feet over time.
that defined the eastern end of the lot. The
west foundation wall for the storehouse was built
a large quantity of clay was deposited into the
As part of the development of the property,
atop the clay layer and seemed to accommodate
the drain. Excavations along the interior of the
ravine to provide a stable and level surface for
north wall revealed, however, that the north
later renovated for use as a coffeehouse. That
wall was five courses of brick deeper than the
clay also provided a floor for the northwestern
west and cut through the clay. In doing so, the
north wall truncated the drain, rendering it use-
room.
less. The drain was useful in one sense however;
it helped us determine where the floor level was
Castle Tavern was installed after the clay was
deposited into the ravine; however the north
in the eighteenth century, assuming the top of
wall of the storehouse subsequently truncated
the drain was not protruding above floor level.
the drain to rendering it useless.
the
construction
of the
storehouse
that
was
The brick box drain leading from Edinburgh
Measurements taken from the eighteenth cen-
The floor height of the interior of the cellar
tury floor surface to the first floor sill indicate
was approximately 6 ft.7 in. and was consistent
the height of the room was 6 ft. 7 in.
throughout the cellar, indicating that the cellar
Northeast. In the twentieth century, a four inch concrete floor had been poured in the
northeast room. All but a one foot perimeter
around the walls was cut out in the 1990s, ex-
posing the clay underneath. The clay showed
signs of burning, but the only features observed
in the clay were a twentieth -century heating oil
pipe and sewer conduit. Assuming that the floor
was the same height in the northeastern room ( 6
ft. 7 in.), measurements suggest that about four
inches of clay was removed before the construction of the concrete floor. No excavations were
carried out in this room since the eighteenth-
century floor had been obliterated.
was a viable living and work space in the eighteenth century.
At the southeast corner of the building a
fence extended towards the east into the ravine,
thus limiting access into the side yard from the
street.
This year's excavations at Charlton's Cof-
feehouse were exciting and informative to the
archaeologists, the architectural historians, and
the architectural conservators working on the
reconstruction project. Perhaps as important,
the excavations were a really big hit with our
guests. They were fascinated with the process
of how archaeology, historical research, archi-
Southeast. Although twentieth century coal
tectural sleuthing, and the building trades come
fragments had been impressed into the surface of
together as a team to recreate Colonial Wil-
the floor, the subsoil base seemed to be the origi-
liamsburg's newest treasure.
�7
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
Resurrecting the Coffeehouse
by Edward A. Chappell
Ed is the Roberts Director of the Department of Architectural and Archaeological Research.
Duke of Gloucester Street: detail of c. 1880 photograph, looking west, with Coffeehouse to right.
Reconstruction of the Coffeehouse is the
Projects began to be more strategically cho-
newest chapter in the extraordinary eighty-year
sen for educational purposes in the 1960s. Virtu-
restoration of eighteenth -century Williamsburg.
ally every restoration and reconstruction project
An architectural approach to such work was
has had a specific pedagogical intent, address-
set during the opening chapters in 1928 -1941
ing what each generation sees as an essential
element in our story of the eighteenth century
when researchers and designers first adjusted
or re- created buildings and landscapes to their
American town. Work on the James Geddy
early form, following documentary and physical
site in 1967 provided an effective vehicle for
evidence. Colonial Williamsburg staff and John
D. Rockefeller worked vigorously after World
addressing the lives of a successful tradesman' s
family on the eve of the Revolution. We recast
Greenhow Store in 1983 to portray the char-
War II to flesh out the Historic Area as a unified scene rather than a series of discrete sites
acter and scale of a prominent retail enterprise
without connective tissue. Since then, methods
in the 1770s. Re- creation of Peyton Randolph's
of analysis have become more specialized, additional kinds of evidence have come to bear on
work yard strengthened our ability to address
restoration, and the study of early buildings in
and enslaved people at the end of the colonial
the region has expanded dramatically. On the
era. The Coffeehouse fits this didactic model, as
front line, Historic Trades' use of eighteenth -
useful background to the Revolutionary City.
century building techniques has raised the fidelity of new construction.
race relations and teach about the lives of free
Coffeehouses were centers of news and com-
merce in the eighteenth- century British world.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
8
London coffeehouses more than two
hundred times between December
1717 and August 1718, usually in
the afternoon and early evening.6
Thomas
Jefferson
recorded
regu-
lar visits to a Williamsburg " Coffee
house" from 1767 until 1775, as did
George Washington until 1774, long
after Richard Charlton announced in
June, 1767, that " the Coffee House
in this city being now opened by the
subscriber as a Tavem
The late colonial coffeehouse
Charlton recast is clearly of most
use to Colonial Williamsburg because of its date and the 1765 tale
Exterior perspective. Alfredo Maul, 2003.
of Stamp Act resistance, recounted
by Lt. Governor Francis Fauquier to the Board
of Trade in heroic terms. The tale is illustrative
Hot caffeinated drinks fueled intellectual dis-
of confrontations occurring when the revenue
course and spirited gossip, as well as providing
stamps and their distributors arrived in most
a stimulant to political debate and business
of the thirteen colonies.8 Fauquier's letter de-
engagement.) The name alone could connote a
scribes how on October 30 a threatening crowd
sense of a superior establishment, even if the bill
of gentlemen, merchants, and lesser sorts pur-
of fare included wine and food and otherwise
sued Virginia stamp distributor George Mercer
resembled a tavern, as it often did in the Chesa-
through the street,
eral coffeehouses, though apparently never more
to the Coffee house, in the porch of which I had
seated my self with many of the Council and
the Speaker who had posted himself between
the Crowd and my self. We all received him
than one at a time. The limited number exempli-
with the greatest Marks of welcome ....
fies the city's character as miniature capital, albeit
some little time, a Cry was heard let us rush in'
important, when compared to vast London with
upon this we, that were at the Top of the Steps
peake. Lodging was available in at least some
Virginia public houses of that name.2
Eighteenth -century Williamsburg hosted sev-
After
thousands of coffeehouses catering to specialized
knowing the advantage our Situation gave us to
mercantile or political clientele, including the Vir-
repeu those who should attempt to mount them,
ginia Coffee House in Comhill.3 Most here, if not
all, were near the Capitol and adjoined " the Ex-
change" as a distant echo of London
coffeehouses serving traders and mer-
chants at the Royal Exchange.4 William Byrd II visited one more than a
hundred times in young Williamsburg
from 1709 to 1712, gambling, eating
lightly, not his main meals), and
drinking ( tea or wine, when specified) rather than transacting much
business. Other customers he records
were fellow gentlemen, not the promiscuous mix some London estab-
lishments served.5 Byrd used London
coffeehouses differently a decade later,
regularly drinking chocolate, reading
the news, and connecting with agents
and potential patrons at Court. Byrd
recorded visiting at least five London
coffeehouses --Virginia, St. James' s,
Leveridge, Smyrna, and Will's, his favorite, in Covent Garden. He visited
Preliminary framing perspective. Alfredo Maul, 2003.
�9
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
SOUTH ELEVATION
South and east elevations by Willie Graham, 2008.
advanced to the Edge of the Steps, of which
number I was one. I immediately heard a Cry
archaeologically and plan a possible Coffeehouse
reconstruction. The decision was made to move
see the Governor take care of him, those who
the Armistead House, and in one of the many
before were pushing up the Steps immediately
unlikely scenes to occur in contemporary Wil-
fell back and left a small Space between me
liamsburg, it was picked up by house movers and
The Crowd did not yet disperse,
rolled down eight blocks to a sympathetic new
location on North England Street.
and them ...
it was growing dark and I did not think it safe
to leave Mr. Mercer behind me, so I again
Architectural historians Mark R. Wenger and
advanced to the Edge of the Steps, and said
aloud I believed no man there would do me any
Willie Graham began studying the evidence and
hurt, and turned to Mr. Mercer and told him
if he would walk with me through the people I
believed I could conduct him safe to my house,
and we accordingly walked side by side through
the thickest of the people who did not molest us;
tho' there was some little murmurs. 9
The
incident
had
personal
repercussions
within the leadership class when Coffeehouse
quarrels between members of the Mercer and Lee
families over patriotism and honor led George
Mercer's brother James to beat Arthur Lee in a
fistfight. Each man's claim that the other avoided
designing the building, and in 2003 their analysis
was aided by a talented young Guatemalan named
Alfredo Maul, who produced a preliminary digital
model based carefully on Wenger's and Graham's
study.' 2 The results remained in file drawers and
computer hard drives for half a decade.
The project sprang back to life this year when
Mars family funds began to support planning
and construction. Willie Graham has now produced more than two hundred detailed designs
for everything from exterior walls to precise nail
patterns in the plaster lath. His method is to
represent in digital measured drawings all that
a duel planned for the outskirts of Williamsburg
is known about the building's circa 1765 - 1771
drew support from prominent citizens, includ-
condition and to complete the unknown parts
ing Corbin Griffin for the prideful Dr. Lee and
Thomas Everard, Robert Nicolson, and Archibald
based on field experience and lively debate with
his Colonial Williamsburg colleagues. Some
Diddip for parvenue James. 10 While providing a
of the evidence and interpretations are worth
platform for politically- active Virginians, then,
it and other public houses may have encouraged
discord by attracting a heady mix of men unbound
by the spatial structures and institutional choreography used to control behavior in courthouses,
recounting to indicate how the design is developing, even as Historic Trades and Facilities
Maintenance craftspeople are producing the
churches, and the nearby Capitol.
Great story. Central location. But the building
disappeared about 1889, when Cary Peyton Ar-
frame, woodwork, bricks, and hardware.
Just as archaeologists have probed the nature
of food and beverage consumption and compared
patterns of ceramic and glassware use at the Coffeehouse with those from other contexts, archi-
mistead demolished it to build a larger Victorian
tectural historians have sought to understand how
house, in an era when many colonial buildings in
town were lost to decay and changing standards
of living." Work began in 1995 to study the site
for elite, primarily male, sociability and consumption—at an affordable price. How did the evolu-
the proprietors created a setting sufficiently genteel
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
10
tion of this building compare with better - nown
k
structures in the town, commercial and domestic?
Williamsburg buildings often illustrate ways in
which refined finish could be selectively employed
along with cost -saving choices to craft a space appealing to status conscious gentry and successful
people in trade, separating them from those on the
scruffy edges of the George Mercer story. Middling
tradespeople like wigmaker Richard Charlton and
tavemkeeper Christiana Campbell often rented
well - uilt premises from wealthy and politically
b
connected owners such as Nathaniel Walthoe,
Clerk of Council from 1743 until 1770, and they
struggled to tun a profit. Some tenements like the
John Crump House, Brickhouse Tavem, and an
early form of the brick Lightfoot House sheltered
multiple tenants at one time.
As a rentable space close to the Capitol, what
later became the Coffeehouse played varied roles
in pursuit of income from mid century onwards.
This building was described in the September 17,
1750 deed of Walthoe's purchase from Robert
Crichton as " That Store house and Land situate
lying on the North side of Gloucester Street .
whereon the said Robert Crichton hath lately
Built a Store house and is opposite to the Store
of Mr. John Palmer. "13 One can argue that reference to Palmer's " Store" implies that merchant
Crichton's " Store house" was for storage, not
sales, but the term had both meanings in the
Cellar window jamb in original west wall with sockets
1750s, and some known parts of the structure are
for its frame. Photo by Jeff Klee.
superior to what one expects of a warehouse. For
Walthoe, investing in sales and service space on
a difficult site at this preeminent location is also
more plausible than a warehouse.
Desks and Book Cases, Tables, Chairs .... [ and] a
sortable Parcel of European Goods," worth nearly
600 sterling. 16 In other words, Mitchelson used
Moreover, merchant John Mitchelson used
Walthoe's building as a store selling gentry goods,
the building as a store by 1755. Mitchelson previously operated a store in Yorktown at which in
1751 he advertised a " Great Variety of Household
probably including imported fumiture, fabrics,
Fumiture of the newest Fashions, London Make,"
on May 25, 1771, the building continued to be
including chests of drawers, dressing tables, card
called a storehouse in the deeds. 17 When Char-
tables, claw footed tables, bedsteads, and serving
furniture, all of mahogany, as well as carved and
gilt mirrors, Turkey carpets, metalwares, and a
spinet. 14 Daniel Fisher recorded in his journal in
August 1755 that Walthoe had written to say that
lotte Dickson bought the property in 1771, her
son Beverley wrote merchant John Norton that
they " have Bought a House on the main Street
Mr. Mitchelson, the Person who rented his store
was become a Bankrupt," and offered him, Fisher,
into the mid- 1770s.18
Architectural distinctions between dwell-
preference if he wished to leave the premises
ings and taverns were subtle in third quarter
now called Shields Tavem and rent Walthoe's
Williamsburg. Wetherbum's, for example, is
essentially a dwelling in form. Stores were more
building. ( Fisher called the old Shields building
and metalwares. In spite of being labeled " the
Coffeehouse" when auctioned at Raleigh Tavem
next The Capitol the most convenient in Town
for a Store." The Dicksons operated a store there
the English Coffee House" and briefly ran it as
a tavem before changing the function to a store
and multiple apartments to let.). 15 The following October, a Gazette advertisement announced
specialized, but they often incorporated housing,
two auctions of Mitchelson's possessions, the
Walthoe's storehouse mention no specific spaces
second at his Williamsburg store, including " sun-
or finishes. In short, the written documents
dry Household Fumiture, viz. Beds and Bedding,
tell of varied use but reveal very little about
and functions could shift, as further illustrated
by the various store and public - ouse uses of
h
Market Square Tavern. Typically, references to
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
11
seeking to piece together evidence about
lost buildings, and they give our effort an
essential armature of information above
ground level. Because of generous reuse,
the reconstruction became a giant puzzle,
albeit with many missing parts. 19
The foundations are quite informative.
Their quality suggests respectable but not
lavish construction, and they tell us much
about the form of the building. They indicate the precise size, 35 feet 2 inches square,
and heights from the varied ground level
Linen pulley cord attached to lower window sash. Photo by Linda
Baumgarten.
which has risen here as much as 3 feet
in 250 years) to the original sill. That sill
foot square) limitations of the property and the
remains visible as a dirty outline on the top course
of eighteenth century brickwork. No chimneys
presence of an elevated porch.
engaged the outer walls, and archaeologists found
the building's appearance beyond the tight ( 35
Material sources are far richer for this pur-
bumed clay in the cellar floor, indicating a roughly
pose, and they help explain why retail and
centered chimney. Both the extent of the burning
reception trades were so interchangeable there.
and the lack of a detached kitchen indicate that
A hazy photograph from the east captured the
cooking took place in the cellar. Separate kitchens
old building about 1880, standing near the end
of the tree -lined street. The photo shows only a
are most familiar among surviving and reconstructed eighteenth century Williamsburg houses,
portion of the structure, clearly then in decline,
with a sagging cornice and frame exposed where
a weatherboard had fallen away. Fauquier's
porch was long gone, and front openings may
but cellar cookrooms offered an alternate means of
distancing workers and work from refined spaces, as
seen at the 1723 John Blair House, the 1732 - 1733
William and Mary President's House, and the
have been altered. But the photo is informative
1788 - 1790 St. George Tucker House. The cellar
because it indicates the general height of the
fireplace reinforces indications in the woodwork
building and shows it with a low gable roof and a
that what became the Coffeehouse was first built
large nine over nine pane sash window near the
as a residence as well as a storehouse. While a store
front of the east wall. For reasons of economy or
might include a kitchen, we know of no regional
original presence of the porch, the front cornice
examples, and the chimney clearly served numer-
is plain like those on the William T'mson and
ous fireplaces, from the beginning —more than
expected solely for a merchant's counting room and
limited housing at a store.
George Reid houses, not expensively finished
with modillion blocks like those on the town's
best dwellings and businesses, such as the Nelson -Galt House and Prentis Store.
After demolition, Armistead' s masons re-
used literally thousands of salvaged brick in
When building his up -to -date house in 1890,
the rebuilt south and east foundations and in
Armistead salvaged useful parts of the old edifice.
his new chimneys. By carefully disassembling
His builders left the substantial English bond
west and north ( rear) brick foundations in place,
their brickwork, we Teamed about the form and
though they altered the size and location of its
windows. They demolished the other cellar walls
and a large internal chimney, then reused the
brick to construct new walls and chimneys. They
appeared to be two eighteenth- century phases
also reused pieces of the old hewn and pit - awn
s
orange to red in color, not long fired at a high
frame, especially when constructing the lower
temperature. These include pieces that appear to
floor of the Victorian house. Finish carpenters
ceilings and straighten walls before they applied
have come from several fireplaces, including the
cellar fireplace, worn down by cooks sharpening
knives on the jamb and roughly finished with
whitewash and ( nineteenth- century) lavender
plaster lath. They cut floorboards into pieces used
paint. Some upper fireplaces had whitewashed
to frame new hearths and sheathe the dormers.
rather than plastered faces, suggesting economy,
Finally, four early doors, two nine - ane sash, and
p
while at least one had comers made of carefully
three louvered shutters were dragged into the
selected and rubbed salmon brick, indicating refinement. Many 1750 brick came from multiple
flues in the chimney. Much smaller quantities of
picked random pieces of exterior and interior trim
from the demolition refuse and used them to level
enlarged cellar. Such recyclers and packrats are
unwitting benefactors to architectural sleuths
finish of the earlier chimney and that there
of its construction, original and what we take
to be Coffeehouse additions. Most of the brick
matches that of the 1750 foundations, light
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
12
PURLIN
PLASTER
LATH
POST
3
5
FEET
Surviving principal rafter with dormer evidence, rear slope, looking west. Only lath indicated by early nail holes are
shown. Measured and drawn by Willie Graham, Jeff Klee, and Mark R. Wenger.
to those used in the Courthouse and Bruton
These were heavier than normal among surviving Williamsburg cellar windows, suggest-
Parish Church tower. They contain heavy iron
ing they may have been fitted with sizeable
inclusions and were fired longer at high tempera-
leaded sash rather than left open or served by
tures, making them harder and more consistent.
Microscopic analysis of the shell mortar likewise
shutters or conventional wooden sash. Small
diamond shaped panes of glass called quarrels
indicates two early periods of construction, with
held together by strips of lead were used in sev-
salvaged brick are a darker plum color, similar
coarser sand used in making the later mortar.20
enteenth- century and early eighteenth- century
Our assumption is that a fireplace was added
to the old front sales room in order to provide
Coffeehouse customers with at least two heated
windows, like that re- created in the second -best
room at Shields Tavern. Artifact scholars and
spaces. Even in the half century earlier cof-
Hume, and Isabel Davies have all observed that
old- fashioned leaded windows survived in Wil-
feehouse Byrd patronized, the uses he describes
suggest multiple rooms, one of which could be
rented for private use.21
The foundations show that the clay- floored,
unplastered cellar was entered from at least
one exterior doorway on the east, where grade
remained low. There were two substantial cellar
windows in both the west and north walls, venti-
lating and lighting the cookroom and two other
spaces, probably occupied by enslaved workers
and variously used for storage Excavations indicate there were no south cellar windows and the
8 foot - eep porch ran the full length, like those
d
known at larger taverns in town.
archaeologists Kelly Ladd Kostro, Ivor Noel
liamsburg well into the middle of the eighteenth
century, indicated by distinctive lead fragments
impressed with tiny dates or found in otherwise
datable archaeological contexts.22
The Coffeehouse site is particularly rich in
such evidence, as excavators recovered no less
than 203 lead window fragments in a large
circa 1760s refuse deposit north of the building.
Fragments dated 1737, 1756, 1760, and 1766
indicate windows were broken and repaired on
the site, for which there is no known pre -1749
occupation. The cellar windows are the most
likely location for the archaic glass which was by
Uncovering original window jambs behind
then low- status, and one can both imagine them
Armistead House brickwork in recent months,
mason Raymond Cannetti found sockets and
being made from scratch or salvaged from earlier
buildings and reworked for these unusually large
the clear outlines of original window frames.
cellar openings. 23
�13
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/2009
The surviving first -loor windows are much
f
bigger, 2 feet 10 inches by 6 feet 8 inches and ex-
Woodwork for secondary rooms at the Coffeehouse was plainer, including small four - anel doors
p
pensive, of a scale used to provide generous light
with simple moldings in plain beaded frames. The
to refined houses or superior tavems. Upper sash
lesser doors had smaller iron rimlocks operated
were stationary; lower ones were counterweighted
by lead bars hung on linen ropes turning on box-
solely by keys, without knobs. The three surviving small doors were first painted tan, so they
wood wheels in the jambs. Like most eighteenth -
either began unpainted or were added later than
century woodwork found in the Armistead House,
red -painted woodwork. These pieces had only a
the sash retained early paint surfaces that, when
few layers of paint applied between the 1760s and
studied microscopically, revealed layers of a first -
1889, unlike the larger door and window sash, so
period ( 1750) red -brown inside and out, followed
by tan or cafe au lait paint, when the building was
they were in positions that received less attention.
Plaster surviving on bricks as well as fragments
remodeled.24 The earliest paint was made with
found in the archaeological deposits also indicated
iron oxide pigments and the second with yellow
relatively simple finish in some spaces: brown
ochre and white lead mixed in linseed oil.
coats of plaster made of tan sand and shell like the
Similar paint layers survived on a battered
mortar, without hair, and followed by whitewashes
early exterior door, also apparently first -period,
rather than white plaster and pigmented paints.
reused as a cellar door in the Armistead House.
The upper floor was clearly backstage space,
conceivably used for all the mundane and illicit
In the absence of evidence for first floor doorways
on other exterior walls, this must have been on
the front, opening onto the porch. Though modest in size, it was expensively made, with complex
functions that taverns and coffeehouses com-
monly sheltered. Originally it was lighted only
by gable windows, and structural posts passed
moldings more comparable to those at the Tayloe
up awkwardly through the middle of the rooms.
and Wythe houses than one expects for an ordi-
These posts connected principal rafter trusses
nary storehouse. Ahnistead's builders salvaged one
piece of a door frame with a fine double architrave
with heavy timbers over first -floor rooms to help
carry the ceilings. Conventional Roman numerals
of the variety unusually associated with superior
work, like the best doorways at Wetherbum's and
five heavy hewn and pit - awn trusses, which exs
the Benjamin Powell House, offering another
tended through the angled plaster surfaces like the
piece of evidence for a respectable residence in
roughly contemporary oversized rafters and purl -
chiseled into the roof frame show that there were
the initial building. HL hinges were mounted
ins ( horizontal timbers carrying common rafters)
on both the door leaf and architrave rather than
in upper chambers at Wetherbum's Tavem. The
being set flush with the face of the leaf and discreetly hidden behind the architrave.
location of the middle truss forced builders to shift
I act year, the new owner of the relocated
Armistead House removed its plaster as part of a
rehabilitation, and we found more Coffeehouse
woodwork that had been nailed to the sides of studs
and joists. Among these are exterior trim, baseboards, chairboards, and a simpler door architrave
painted with a dark stripe at the bottom, to match
the base. Using microscopic analysis and biological
staining techniques, conservator Susan Buck found
evidence of starch paste over the tan paint layers at
the edges of both the big double architrave and the
newly -ound one, suggesting that two rooms were
f
wallpapered, conceivably just after the trim was
repainted. 25 Our suspicion is that Charlton added
relatively inexpensive paper to several spaces as a
ready means of making them sufficiently genteel for
intended clientele. Graham and Wenger proposed
that paper was applied to wall sheathing in the
original sales room, sheathing of the variety often
used in sales rooms of eighteenth -century Chesa-
peake stores including those surviving at Market
Square Tavern and Nicolson Store. 26 Fragments of
such sheathing were found a year ago reused in the
Armistead House attic.
Original front door reused in Armistead House cellar.
Photo by Erin Kuykendall.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
14
tered on the square sales space, the normal arrange-
ment seen at the Nicolson Store, Cole Shop, and
countless early Virginia stores. An 1892 view shows
such fenestration fronting all three units resembling
shop fronts at the John Crump House. The narrower southeast room has a single front window
and at least one more in the east wall, as seen in the
old photo. Choosing a central chimney reflects an
effort to heat numerous rooms with a single stack,
in a manner similar to that William Robertson used
when building the earliest part of the Randolph
House.28 The placement of the chimney, three
different sets of lower joists, and a remnant of brick
pier or partition on the west cellar wall help establish the longitudinal partition between front and
rear spaces on the main floor. Luckily, a surviving
lower bearing beam appears to reveal the form of
the partition west of the chimney, with its framing
and a doorway to rear spaces.
Surviving floor joists indicate that a rear stair
extended from the cellar to attic, providing the
First -loor plan. Willie Graham, 2008.
f
route for delivering food in the absence of rear
doorways. This stair probably occupied a back passage, which gave access to a central room rented
the chimney to "one side, making it off-balanced
as part of the domestic space. A second stair con-
above the roof. More than a hundred of the sal-
nected the storeroom to its separate attic rooms via
vaged bricks were originally cut to angle the flues
at 45° or loweron their way up from fireplaces to
the sort of comer passage originally present at the
exterior chimneystack. Some bricks of both vari-
the oldest part of the Taliaferro - ole House, which
C
seems to have begun life as a store. Once the two
eties further indicate that fireplaces were added
Prentis Store and surviving in Nicolson Store and
and the upper chimney rebuilt, presumably when
sections were given over to use as a coffeehouse
the storehouse was converted to coffeehouse.
and later a tavem, the storeroom was upgraded to
Rafter fragments with collar joints indicate
the building had low attic ceilings and that the
roof line conformed to the shape visible in the
nineteenth- century photograph. Rafters and
joists provided tulip poplar wood samples that
dendrochronologist Herman Heikkenen inde-
serve as one of two or three rooms where drinks and
food were served. Proprietors like Charlton could
occupy backstage rooms, just as Henry Wetherbum
probably lived in the rear rooms of his tavern, while
renting out others as bedspaces. The sizable number
of wig curlers found in Coffeehouse deposits sug-
pendently dated as having been from trees felled
gests Charlton may have plied his hair trade there
after the growing season of 1749, validating our
as well, trying to prosper by serving the gentry in
assumption that they indeed came from the Cof-
more ways than one.
feehouse. 27 Graham and Wenger read one prin-
A project like the Coffeehouse draws together
cipal rafter as having initially been exposed and
an unparalleled community of Colonial Wil-
again arguably when the building was recast for
liamsburg staff and a few outside specialists. I will
only list some prominent examples. Early documentary research by Patricia Gibbs was followed
the Coffeehouse or tavern.
by an episodic series of archaeological excava-
whitewashed,
then
covered with plaster when
dormers were added to the rear slope of the roof,
The main floor plan is among the more elusive
tions in 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, and 2008, most
questions posed by a square foundation, and our
recently directed by Mark Kostro and Andrew
answer is pieced together from numerous shreds of
Edwards, and that will continue selectively in
evidence. The overall dimensions indicate a plan
2009. The esteemed Raymond Cannetti has led
two rooms deep and two wide. The apparent original functions of storehouse and dwelling imply two
the surgical removal of recycled masonry, every
front doorways, one opening into a storeroom and
and /or I have studied, and Erin Kuykendall has
the other into the best residential room, the two
curated. Cannetti also works with me to control
openings aligned with front steps that archaeologists feel were added between 1771 and 1789. This
the quality of the new brickwork. Thomas Taylor
facilitates a door flanked by a pair of windows cen-
masonry and recycled brick that we are now reus-
piece of which he, newcomer Matt Webster,
oversees the thankless task of cleaning surviving
�15
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
ing for the walls from which they came in 1889.
1 Markman Ellis, The Coffee House: A Cultural History
Masons Rick Williams, Kirsten Crum, and Chris
London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2004); Markman Ellis,
Phaup have worked on all phases of disassembly
and rebuilding, and they have now been joined
ed., Eighteenth- Century Coffeehouse Culture ( London: Pickering & Chatto, 2006).
2 The conflation of coffeehouse name and tavern functions
is illustrated by a 1771 advertisement that at " the Sign of the
King's Arms Coffeehouse, in Church Street, Norfolk, is established a very genteel and convenient Inn and Tavem ( with good
by other skillful preservation masons, including
Luther Barden, Robert Hall, Kevin Neito, John
Sines, and Eldon Yoder.
Historic Trades brickmakers Jason Whitehead,
Josh Graml, and Bill Neff moved swiftly to produce handsome bricks and to give us virtually
all we coveted, short of a few promised to the
White House before we began. They are now
cutting brick for the walls and rubbing others to
stabling for Horses) and for Accommodation of Travellers and
others; supported by a Society of Gentlemen." Virginia Gazette
Purdie & Dixon), June 20, 1766, p. 3. Eleven years later Meredith Muse advertised that in Fredericksburg he had " opened a
Coffeehouse in the House lately kept by Mrs. Julian as a Tavem," where " Gentlemen may be genteelly accommodated with
Lodging, & c., for themselves, Servants, and Horses," Virginia
resemble those that survive from fireplace facings
Gazette ( Dixon & Hunter), August 15, 1777, p. 6; December
and hearths. Historic Trades carpenters led by
Garland Wood are crafting a frame almost indis-
coffeehouse in celebration of George Washington's birthday
in 1780. Virginia Gazette ( Dixon & Nicolson), February 26,
1780, p. 2. Washington attended a club dinner in an Annapolis
tinguishable from the details of its predecessor,
and the materials production team led by Wesley
Watkins is doing likewise with 13, 000 nicely executed cedar shingles. Wood, Ted Boscana,
28, 1777, p. 3. An "elegant ball" was held at the Fredericksburg
coffeehouse on October 5, 1772: " Reached Annapolis -Dined
at the Coffee House with Jockey Club & lodged at the Govr
after going to the play." Paul Leicester Ford, Washington and the
Theatre ( New York: Dunlap Society, 1899), p. 23.
Bobby Clay, Corky Howlett, and Jack Underwood
3 According to the 1796 Gentleman' s Magazine, one
will also make woodwork, as will Tim Edwards,
Virginian shot another in a duel that year over a disagree-
Roy Condrey, Fred Shearin, and Dale Trowbridge
ment that began in the Virginia Coffee House in London.
in the millshop and contractor Jack Abeel. Ken
Schwarz is involved in the scholarship as well as
leading production of extensive hardware, from
door locks to cooking cranes. Willie Graham and
Mark R. Wenger, arguably the most versed people
on the planet in the analysis of early Chesapeake
Mary R. M. Goodwin, " The Coffeehouse of the 17th and
18th Centuries" ( report, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
hereinafter CWF], 1956), 12.
4 Lieutenant Governor Francis Fauquier, in the letter cited
below, noted that when Colonel Mercer arrived from England
with the controversial revenue stamps, " I then thought proper
to go to the Coffee house ( where I occasionally sometimes
go) which is situated in that part of the Town which is call'd
construction, have conceived the plan and pro-
the Exchange tho' an open Street, where all money business
duced the designs- primarily Graham at this
is transacted ...
stage - with support from architectural historian
Jeff Klee, and have fed them to Wayne Buhl and
usual." George Reese, ed., The Official Papers of Francis Fauquier,
Lieutenant Governor of Virginia 1758 -1768 ( Charlottesville: Uni-
Neil Ellwein in Architecture and Engineering,
overseen by Clyde Kestner and Scott Spence.
Cad Lounsbury and Kevin Kelly have offered
historical perspective. Susan Buck provided microscopic paint analysis that connected or sepa-
rated early wood and masonry pieces of the puzzle
The mercantile people were all assembled as
versity Press of Virginia, 1983), v. 3, pp. 1291 -92.
5 Especially after September, 1710, Byrd's diary entries illustrate the degree to which a Williamsburg coffeehouse could
play a common role in a gentleman's urban daily routine,
more than James Boswell's later notes do in London. See, for
example, Louis B Wright and Marion Tinting, eds., The Secret
Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709 -1712 ( Richmond:
Dietz Press, 1941), pp. 98, 241, 245 -46, 249-51, 255 -64, 268-
as early as 1997, and she and Natasha Loeblich
71, 430, 432- 45, 449 -53, 455 -58, 474- 79, 488 -89. Byrd's later
have intensified that work as more pieces and
surviving Virginia diary contains only a handful of references,
including "After dinner I walked to the coffeehouse and read
news, then received some money of Lidderdale, then walked
new questions appeared this year. Kim Ivey, Lynne
Hastings, Ronald Hurst, Tara Chicirda, and Mar-
garet Pritchard are planning the fumishings. Larry
Heath and David Coleman manage construction,
Kestner is the project manager, and James Hom
pilots the undertaking as project executive. Ar-
to Lady Randolph's .... on June 11, 1740. Maude H. Woodfin,
ed., Another Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 17391741 ( Richmond: Dietz Press, 1942), p. 75. The physician
Alexander Hamilton's 1744 " Itinerarium" indicates how an
elite traveler could find fellowship in Philadelphia, New York,
and Newport coffeehouses. On June 7, he twice visited a Phila-
chitectural conservator Matt Webster has already
become essential in all areas of planning, analysis,
delphia coffeehouse, where he " was introduced by Dr. Thomas
and work. These and many others make the Cof-
of shaking of hands, an old custom peculiar to the English, was
feehouse project uniquely possible at Colonial
Williamsburg. Their collective effort will recap-
Newport, between 7 and 9 pm he spent time " att the coffee-
ture an essential piece of the town's early culture,
sound of 'very welcome, sir,' and ' very welcome, gentlemen,'
and the perfect stage for the opening act of the
pronounced solemnly, slowly, and with an audible voice to
American Revolution.
Bond to severall gentlemen of the place where the ceremony
performed with great gravity and the usuall compliments." In
house where our ears were not only frequently regaled with the
such as came in and went out by Hassey, a queer old dog, the
keeper of the coffee house, but we were likewise alarmed ( not
charmed) for half an hour by a man who sung with a trumpet
note that I was afraid he would shake down the wafts of the
house about us." Carl Bridenbaugh, Gentleman's Progress: The
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
16
Itinerarium ofDr. Alexander Hamilton ( Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press, 1948), p. 19 and 153- 54. Also see pp.
20, 26, 47, 89, 151, 156, 189, 191.
proprietor until 1777. Advertisements in the January 23,
1772 Virginia Gazette ( Purdie & Dixon), p. 3, and February 6,
1772 ( Rind), p. 3 offered private lodgings for seven or eight
6 Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinting, eds., William
gentlemen at this location, " the Coffeehouse, near the Capi-
Byrd of Virginia, The London Diary ( 1717- 1721) and Other
Writings ( New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 50 -57,
vertised the property for sale, " where the Coffeehouse is now
60 -63, 65 -73, 75, 79, 80, 82, 85- 86, etc.
7 Virginia Gazette ( Purdie & Dixon), June 25, 1767, p. 3.
Precisely what Richard Charlton meant by the ad is unclear.
Licensed taverns were permitted to serve hard liquor as well
tol," and in 1774 John Webb of Halifax, North Carolina adkept." Virginia Gazette ( Purdie & Dixon), October 13, 1774,
p. 3, and again, " My house ... at present the Coffee House,"
Virginia Gazette ( Purdie), September 26, 1777, p. 3.
18 Gibbs, " Historical Report," pp. 18- 19.
19 Chappell, " Early Coffeehouse Fragments from the Cary
as wine and were required to provide food, lodging, and
stabling of horses at a regulated price. The change from un-
Peyton Armistead House, Williamsburg, Virginia" ( report,
licensed coffeehouse to licensed tavern could have reflected
CWF,October 6, 2008); Chappell, "Informative Brick Removed
Charleron's need to serve sprirous liquors openly, his stuggle
from 1890 Cellar Masonry of the Cary Peyton Armistead House,
to tum a profit from more limited service, or even a change
Williamsburg, Virginia" (report, CWF, September 15, 2008).
20 Matt Webster, "Brick and Mortar Samples from Char -
of ownership. The documentary record is drawn substantially
from Patricia A. Gibbs, " Historical Report for Colonial Lot
lton's Coffeehouse" ( report, CWF, October 12, 2008). The
58, Cary Peyton Armistead House Site ( 1890- 1995) and Bur dett's Ordinary ( Reconstructed 1940- 1942)" ( report, CWF,
1996). I thank Gibbs, Kevin Kelly, and Linda Rowe for their
darker brick resemble those more commonly used in Williams-
aid in sorting out references found after 1996.
after dinner " we went to the coffeehouse where the governors of the College were to meet about several matters and
8 Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp
Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution ( Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press, 1995).
9 Reese, ed., Official Papers ofFrancis Fauquier, v. 3, p. 1292.
Joseph Royle's Virginia Gazette ( October 25, 1765, Supplement,
burg in the 1760s and ' 70s.
21 For example, on January 28, 1712, Byrd reported that
particularly about Tanaquil Faber and they mined him out
of his place but gave him, however, his salary for the whole
year. They agreed to give Mr. Tullis £400 to build up the College hall [after the fire]. Then we played at Piquet and I lost
p. 3) carried a somewhat different version of the drama, with
7." Wright and Tinling, Secret Diary, p. 476. One appeal of
a smaller role for Fauquier, but it, too, reported that Mercer
encountered " the Govemour, most of the Council, and a great
number of Gentlemen" at the Coffeehouse. It recounts that
coffeehouses for such meetings in winter was that the rooms
Mercer was grandly feted at a tavern or the Coffeehouse after
essentially resigning his position the following day.
liamsburg stores and the archaeological remains of others.
10 Virginia Gazette ( Purdie & Dixon), May 28, 1767, p. 3;
Virginia Gazette ( Rind), July 23, 1767, pp. 1- 2; Louis W. Potts,
Arthur Lee: A Virtuous Revolutionary ( Baton Rouge: Louisiana
State University Press, c.1981), p. 42; Lois Mulkeam, George
Mercer Papers Relating to the Ohio Company of Virginia ( Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1954), pp. 203-04.
11 Armistead bought the property between 1885 and 1889
and built the new house for his wife Eudora Esther and himself
were heated, as those in the Capitol were not. Sales rooms in
stores were generally unheated, as seen in the surviving Wil-
22 Kelly Ladd, " Archaeological Evidence for Casement
Windows in Williamsburg," The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter, 19 ( Spring 1998): 26; Ivor Noel Hume, " A Window
on Williamsburg," Colonial Williamsburg, 20 ( Autumn,
1997): 32- 39; Isabel Davies, " Window Glass in Eighteenth -
Cenmry Williamsburg,' in Five Artifact Studies ed. by Ivor
Noel Hume ( Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg
Foundation, 1973), pp. 78- 99.
23 For discussion of the evidence and design for the cellar
in 1890. Gibbs, " Historical Report," ( pp. 24 and 61- 62) points
windows, see Chappell, "Leaded Windows at the Coffeehouse,
out that the value of building on the property changed in the
Williamsburg Land Tax Records from zero in 1890 to "$ 1500
added for new Buildings" in 1891, indicating that the house was
constructed the previous year. The old building, then called the
Williamsburg, Virginia" ( report, CWF, September 18, 2008).
Morrison House, had been valued at $200 in 1888 -89.
24 Susan Buck, " Colonial Williamsburg: Walthoe Storehouse, Paint Analysis Report" ( report, SPNEA Conserva-
tion Center, Waltham, MA, January 27, 1997); Natasha K.
Loeblich, "Cross- Section Microscopy Analysis of Finishes on
12 Willie Graham and Mark R. Wenger, "Dora Armistead
Architectural Fragments and Foundations, Charlton's Cof-
House: Reused Eighteenth CenturyTimbers" (memorandum,
CWF, December, 1995); Wenger and Graham, " Origin of the
feehouse ( Block 17), Williamsburg, Virginia" ( report, CWF,
August, 2008). The size of first -floor windows is provided by
Framing and its Implications for the Physical History of Lot
post- colonial shutters as well as the original sash. One of the
58" ( report, CWF, 1996); annotated record drawings, 199596, site file, Department of Architectural and Archaeologi-
pulley wheels survives, set directly into a jamb rather than in
a separate housing as done in more expensive windows like
cal Research, CWF; Chappell, " Coffeehouse Design Notes"
those at Wetherbum's Tavern and the James Geddy House.
minutes, CWF, February 12 and 26, 1999).
13 York County Records, Deeds and Bonds 5, pp. 388 -92.
14 Virginia Gazette ( Hunter), September 5, 1751, p. 3;
September 12 and 19, 1751, p. 4.
15 Transcribed in Louise Pecquet du Belles, Some Prominent
Virginia Families ( Lynchburg: J. R Bell, 1907), v. 2, pp. 807-08.
Fisher's letter from Walthoe indicates that the owner felt the
building could serve Fisher well as astore. Fisher's annoucemenrs
for opening the tavem and subsequently offering accommodation in the previous Shields Tavem are in the Virginia Gazette,
October3, 1751, p. 3 and Febmary 20, 1752, p. 4.
16 Virginia Gazette ( Hunter), October 10 and 17, 1755,
p. 3 and October 24, 1755, p. 4.
17 Virginia Gazette ( Purdie & Dixon), April 25 and May
16, 1771, p. 3. A separate business called the Coffeehouse operated next door in 1772 and was run there by an unknown
25 Susan L. Buck, " Cross- Section Microscopy Report:
Search for Wallpaper and Paint Evidence, Charlton's Coffeehouse Architectural Fragments and Wetherbum's Tavern
West First -Floor Room" ( report, CWF, August 3, 2008).
26 Mark R. Wenger, Wallpaper- Market Square Tavem
and Charlton%Coffeehouse" ( report, CWF July 18 and August
4, 2008).
27 Heenan J. Heikkenen, "The LastYear ofTree Growth for
Selected Timbers within the Armistead House, Period I, as De-
rived by Key - ear Dendrochronology," report, DendrochronolY
ogy, Inc., March, 1996. Heikkenen's findings and the 1750 deed
indicate, then, that trees were cut sometime after October, 1749,
and that the building was finished by the following September.
28 Another story- and -a -half example is Seven Springs
in King William County, probably built c. 1750. It, too, has
a single fireplace serving a cellar room.
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
17
English Coffeehouses
Coffeehouses in Eighteenth- Century Virginia
by Emma L. Powers
London coffeehouses were the models that
Virginians imitated. Throughout the eighteenth
century, Virginians were proud to be English and
Lou is a historian in the Department of Historical
Research.
When coffeehouses first opened, they quickly
took on a character distinct from taverns. The
English fashion began in London; consequently,
coffeehouses would be fashionable in Virginia.
Naturally, differences were apparent between the
establishments of London and of Williamsburg.
In 1775 Williamsburg's population amounted to
new and exotic beverages in which they spe-
about 2, 000 ( over half of whom were enslaved
cialized were stimulants, not intoxicants. Cof-
African Americans), and the inhabitants of
feehouses, at least initially, prohibited gambling
and the consumption of alcohol. It is easy to
London numbered 675, 000. Such a small city
as Williamsburg —
although important as the
see why coffeehouses gained the reputation of
capital of the wealthy and populous colony —
being sober, genteel places quite unlike other
could not support the variety of specialized cof-
public houses. Tavems were required by law to
provide food, drink, and lodging. Out of neces-
feehouses that thrived. in London.
sity, respectable women could make use of a
liamsburg dates to 1709, when William Byrd II
tavern's facilities. Coffeehouses in seventeenth-
mentioned one located at the east end of Duke of
and eighteenth- century England catered to an
exclusively male clientele, but women occasion-
Gloucester Street near the Capitol. He went to
ally owned or worked in such establishments.
Coffeehouses were places where men from
The earliest reference to a coffeehouse in Wil-
the coffeehouse for drinks, meals, meetings, the
latest newspapers, and card games. Such activities show the close resemblance to coffeehouses
all but the very lowest rank of society met, min-
in London. Unfortunately, we know neither the
gled, conducted business, and exchanged infor-
exact location nor the proprietor's name, but
mation and opinions. Any man with a penny
clearly the customers at this Williamsburg cof-
for admission was welcomed and could interact
with his fellows in the coffeehouse without re-
feehouse were mostly burgesses, councilors, and
gard to rank or privilege. Some establishments
posted rules of behavior stipulating that all
customers were deemed equal and prohibiting
By the 1740s another coffeehouse was in
operation in Williamsburg, again noted in the
diary of William Byrd II. In 1751 the tenant at
gambling, swearing, quarrelling, and mourning
what we now know as Shields Tavem called his
over lost love. Because of the free exchange of
business the English Coffee House. By the 1760s
others who worked at the Capitol.
ideas and opinions ( and the small admission
there was a coffeehouse near the Capitol and the
charge), London coffeehouses became known
part of town called the Exchange, where mer-
as " Penny Universities."
Especially in large cities, the clientele of some
chants met to set prices of tobacco and to con-
coffeehouses became specialized. One coffeehouse,
protest of the Stamp Act took place just in front
operated by an Edward Lloyd, was so popular
of this coffeehouse, where the governor and his
duct their business. In the fall of 1765, a local
with shippers, captains, and maritime insurers that
Council were taking their ease on the porch. By
Lloyd posted the arrival and departures of ships
June 1767 Richard Charlton announced in the
from London docks. Long after Lloyd's death, the
Virginia Gazette that he was changing this cof-
underwriters who remained steady customers of the
feehouse into a tavern.
establishment he had begun formed the insurance
www.11oyds. com /About_Us /History/ Chronology.
Exotic Beverages
Coffee, tea, and
htm]. Other coffeehouses attracted politicians,
chocolate
clergymen, artists, stockbrokers, writers, and so on.
long histories. Coffee
The London stock exchange operated for 73 years
out of Jonathon's and Garraway's coffeehouses.
beans are native
to Ethiopia, where
firm still known today as Lloyd's of London [http: //
all
have
Businessmen and doctors kept office hours in their
some local tribes
favorite watering hole; the writer Jonathan Swift
used
received his letters at St. James's Coffeehouse, and
The Tatler, a London newspaper, gave the Grecian
energy food —not a beverage. The Arabs brought
coffee from Ethiopia and began brewing it to
Coffeehouse as its address. Overall, coffeehouses
drink. The Maya of Central America cultivated
were such important institutions to London society
cacao beans as early as 600 A.D. Tea goes back
that one did not inquire where a fellow lived but
even further, dating back 5, 000 years according to
rather what coffeehouse he frequented.
Chinese legend. However, none of these bever-
them
as
an
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
18
ages were known in England or her colonies until
to prepare. And sugar made from cane grown in
the mid seventeenth century.
the West Indies also arrived in England in the
England's first coffeehouse opened in Oxford
in 1650, and London had her first one within
mid -seventeenth century, so the taster could
two years. By 1700 there were over 2, 000 coffeehouses operating in London alone!
Although we particularly associate England
with tea -drinking, both tea and coffee were in-
The raw materials for these beverages, as well
troduced to Britons at about the same time. Tea
became popular with the English after 1652, only
mid -seventeenth century. What the three hot
shortly after the coffee craze first arrived, and for
sobering, rather than intoxicating. With that
most of the seventeenth century coffee was the
characteristic in common, it is easy to see why
temperate men of business took to them and to
more popular beverage. While coffee and coffeehouses had masculine connotations, tea was
associated with women and the domestic realm.
Spaniards brought chocolate to Europe from
the New World in 1528 and kept its source and (
sweeten the cup of his or her preferred drink.
as sugar and numerous spices were among the
precious imported grocery items that all became
popular in England and her colonies during the
drinks have in common is that they were all
the coffeehouses that served them.
Before coffee, tea, and chocolate, most Englishmen, women, and children drank "small beer"
low alcohol fermented grain and water) or hard
cider. In those days before knowledge of
preparation a secret for nearly 90 years.
In 1615, the daughter of Spain's
bacteria and water purification, city
King Philip II married Louis XIII and
people knew that their water was foul
took the custom of drinking choco- — late to the French court. Chocolate's -___'
popularity spread across Europe more —_ -
and dangerous to drink; experience
taught them boiled water was much
Y
1 °^
n.. —
safer. Beer, having undergone both
g
g
tea, probably because chocolate was _ —
boiling and fermentation, was con sumed at all times of the day —with
more expensive and more difficult --
breakfast, dinner, and supper.
slowly than the fashion for coffee and — —
�l9
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/2009
Bread!!
The Staff of Life —
by Dennis Cotner
Dennis is a Historic Foodways specialist in the Department of Historic Trades.
The Bible refers to bread as the staff of life.
white bakers ( mainly in Europe) and the contract
Other than meat, bread has been the central food
baker. The contract baker would have baked in
article since before recorded history. We have
bulk quantity for sale to buyers such as the Royal
Navy, commercial sea captains, and the militia.
Cornelius DeForest was the leading contract
baker in Williamsburg during the period of the
always treated bread, whether unleavened or
risen with yeast as a necessity in our diet. It has
been made by hand since the beginning and most
women throughout history have known enough of
the basic bread baking techniques that they could
make it in their sleep. In the eighteenth century,
it was mainly a home -made article. However, in
cities and towns one could find the commercial
baker plying his trade. Townsfolk have always had
the option of making it or buying it. In Williamsburg it was no different. Several men listed themselves as bakers throughout the century, but few
Revolution. He certainly had the capability to
bake in quantity, as he appeared before the ( Virginia) navy board in April 1778 and was " engaged
to furnish for the use of the Navy twenty five
thousand pounds of good sweet ship Bread at thirty
shillings per hundred." This " sweet ship bread" is
generally the hard biscuit bread known later in
history as hardtack. It was made primarily with
flour that was made up of medium whole wheat
are suspected of actually providing " shop style"
ground very well, combined with water, and baked
breads, pastries, cakes, etc. The commercial bak-
slow, and dried. These three -inch round biscuits
ing industry in the eighteenth century was divided
into several categories, most notably brown and
were a light beige color and had the consistency of
roof tiles. DeForest also provided the desired white
Plate I in the ' Boulanger" section of volume 1I of Recueill de planches, sur les sciences, les arts loberaux, et les arts
mechaniques, avec leur explication ... by Denis Diderot, 1762 - 1772.
�The Coloniat Williamsburg Interpreter
20
bread as well. The Navy Board Journal goes on to
state that " he also engages to deliver fifty pounds
of white Bread to every thousand pounds of the
other at the same price. "1
ents was fairly steady throughout the middle of the
DeForest purchased a lot from John and
ing it was well within the realm of people in the
Williamsburg area. As early as 1719 James Morris,
Betty Lewis on Capitol Landing Road in 1778.
Although he advertizes as " a baker near the
Capitol," other evidence suggests he was doing
the actual baking on the Custis site east of the
Public Hospital. In 1779 a dancing master made
arrangements with DeForest to open a dancing
school for ladies at DeForest's house. DeForest's
eighteenth century, but buying bread could be just
as cheap as making it depending on your locale.
Selling your goods at the town market or delivera carpenter, owed baker Elizabeth Butler " for 30
loaves of bread. "4 We know that most people were
capable of baking their own breads and certainly
the professional cook for the royal governor could
have supplied what the Palace table required.
However, the accounts of William Sparrow, Lord
slaves and much in the way of personal posses-
Botetourt's cook, reveal that bread is being purchased for " the negroes" on December 1, 1769.
sions. His estate paid taxes on ten Williamsburg
lots for several years. 2
On February 1, 1770, £ 15. 4.0 was paid for bread.
This is a good deal of money for bread, but again
Most of us generally envision the commercial baker as the person who has a case full of
most likely indicates several months to a year's
hot loaves ready for the taking. In Europe that
was certainly the case for the larger towns and
Bread is recorded as being bought more often, but
costing less at etch purchase, from the time of the
cities. Trade encyclopedias such as Paul Jacques
Malouin's show shops laden with fine loaves and
governor's death until March 1771?
rolls in abundance.
when it went to sale, it could be used for price
1782 estate inventory and his will show several
bread bill from a baker. Who baked it?Not sure.
Bread overall was rather cheap to make, but
Here in the colonies we would probably find
gouging. This practice of extracting high prices
a smaller counter where the simplest of wares
for bread resulted in laws to help control its sale
were available. Peter Moyer could have been
that type of baker here in town. He owned lots
at the west end of Duke of Gloucester Street and
sold bread to the Raleigh Tavern, most likely
from going " through the roof." The laws were
drawn up to ensure that the price of a loaf of a
for its customers' meals. This practice would
known as assizes, were put in place to help en-
certainly make sense before ovens at the Raleigh
sure that the poor were not deprived of the basic
certain grade of flour was uniform throughout
the region of the law's authority. These laws,
were built. James Southall's accounts show that
necessity of the diet. A four - ound loaf of bread
p
on October 31, 1775, the Raleigh Tavem owner
paid Moyer "£ 15. 19. 4 in full for bread." Just
was selling in England for 6 to 7 pence in the
1760s and 1770s.6
Bread has always been the simplest of foods to
where Moyer did his baking isn' t 100 percent
known but most likely he would have done it on
the property he owned.
create ( Sure it is, says he!). Since ancient times a
One baker who is still somewhat elusive is
mix of flour with a liquid and something to make
it rise have been basic ingredients. By the eigh-
Nicholas Scovemont. He is advertised as " a
teenth century, leavened ( leaven is a substance
baker" and owned lots on Nicholson Street that
added to dough to produce fermentation) bread
he acquired from Peachy Purdie. Like Moyer,
was at the height of popularity. Manchets, a fine
Scovemont also sold bread to Southall. The
tavern owner paid him £11. 10, £ 14. 19, and £ 40
white French loaf, certainly was the preferred
in 1771, 1772, and 1773? Just by the charge
were cheaper ( and tougher on the teeth),
it seems that these payments were for several
consumed by more people than white breads
months or a year's worth of goods. There is
Com meal breads and johnny cakes were known
leading information about a " french baker"
by most of the poor in Virginia society. Although
operating near the later location of the RoscowCole House. Past speculation is that it could be
Scovemont. The extent to which Scovemont
baked and actually where he baked, we are not
sure, but I' m still looking!
It was not unheard of to bake your own bread
by the wealthy. The coarser whole grain loaves
yet
corn was the basic grain for most poor Virginians, wheat was the number one grain grown in
Virginia by the time of the Revolution and was
the desired ingredient for bread making.
Making bread takes a developed skill, not a hard
for sale as well as your own consumption. There
one, just a developed one. Knowing the ingredients, their quantities, and how they work together
are a number of references and evidence of brick
ovens in Williamsburg. How much bread one
is really the essence of any recipe. Starting with the
flour quantity desired, you next add some salt to
would bake depended on the size of the household
help flavor the bread and chemically help the bread
and whether time allowed it. The cost of ingredi-
expand and become elastic. Then you add a mix-
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
21
ture of warm (not hot) water with your leavening.
In the eighteenth century most commercial bakers
used " barm." This is the milky liquid from malt
push food onto utensils or to " sop up" sauces. For
liquor and ale casks that when activated will rise
century the bread loaf sometimes acted like a
the bread. Barm was usually " washed" by putting
water in a container with the barm, mixing it, and
then letting it sit to allow the yeast solids to settle to
plate and foods were either piled on it or poured
over it. One could argue that the sandwich got
its start from this application of bread used as a
the bottom. The water is poured off; then the yeast
plate. Any way you look at it bread has been the
washed again. This process gers rid of the strong
staple of meals regardless of form or type.
the poorer sorts, the bread loaf was much more
a basic food article. Long before the eighteenth
hop flavor that isn't necessarily desired in the bread.
This recipe from The Virginia Housewife will
The bread will not rise as fast as it does with mod-
certainly show that most bread is easy to make.7
ern dry yeast, but it does make for a rich flavor. The
whole mixture is then mixed and kneaded ready
French Rolls
for rising. Other leaveners included salt- rising and
Sift a quart of flour, add a little salt, a spoon-
a method to capture wild yeasts floating in the air.
ful of yeast, two eggs well beaten, and half a pint
This last method consisted of putting water, sugar,
of milk, knead it and set it to rise; next morning,
and a starchy medium ( such as potato peels) into
work in an ounce of butter, make the dough into
a bowl. Within 24 hours foaming bubbles would
be growing all around the peels. This will raise the
bread, but very slowly.
small rolls and bake them. The top crust should
When commercial bakers made their bread in
ing and baking. However, putting the ingredients
quantity, they laid down a mixture of water, salt,
leaving ( barm), and enough flour to make it just
next morning the baker added the rest of the flour
together is, I' m sure you'll agree, rather easy. The
skill (that developed skill) is in the kneading and
forming of the dough itself. Lightly flouring your
work surface and " playing" with the dough is the
best way to learn how it works. Using the hands
needed to make the desired bread. This proofing
to roll and press the dough you' ll feel the elas-
beyond batter stage to loose dough stage. This
process was done in the evening, and by early the
not be hard.
Simple? Yes, but only if one is adept at cook-
process made sure the yeast would activate before
ticity developing. Once the dough looks fairly
finishing the dough and making loaves, rolls, etc.
Breads were often shaped into varying styles that
can still be seen today. Whether they are round,
long French style, cottage loaf, splits, or braided,
bread has a long and classic presentation on the
table. Some bread was notched, or " scotched," by
smooth, shape it with the creases on the bottom
lightly dragging a knife across the top of the loaf in
there and will love the end result.
and bake. If you are unsure of temperatures and
times, refer to a modern cookbook. Remember,
if it doesn' t tum out the first time or second, it
is only bread and consider that you just made a
good batch of croutons!!! Try it again, you'll get
several small cuts. This was not only helpful for the
loaf to expand but created an appealing design as
well. Breads of our past also tended to have a chewy
nature. Gluten in the flour and the right kind of
kneading made most bread more desirable than the
aerated slices of modem mass manufacture. True
bread won't stick to the roof of your mouth! In our
culture today bread making has reached new levels
as a specialty. Nowadays there is a gaggle of TV
chefs to watch and a plethora of books to follow for
those who don't know how to do it. In the colonial
period bread making was commonplace as food
1 Navy Board Journal, 25 April 1778 as noted in the
Williamsburg People File, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Library,
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
2 York County Records, Deeds 6 ( 1778- 1791), pp. 94- 96.
3 Brock Collection, Huntington Library, M- 153 -3;
James Southall Acct. Book 1771 - 1776, Brock Collection
as noted in the Research Query Files in the Rockefeller
Library.
4 Jones Papers, M -22 -I, as noted in the Williamsburg
People File in the Rockefeller Library.
5 3 July 1769 - 24 July 1771. Governor's Palace Kitchen
preparation goes. Everyone knew how. With that
Accounts, An Account of Cash Paid by William Sparrow
for his Excellency Lord Botetourt. By William Marshman.
in mind it was not treated as something out of the
ALS. Original: Duke of Beaufort and Gloucestershire
ordinary as it has become today.
Records Office, Botetourt Manuscripts from Badminton,
Most breads of a genteel nature were in actual-
ity rolls as opposed to large loaves as we are used
to seeing. The larger loaf was associated with
more common tables and would usually be torn
or broken into more manageable pieces for the
diner. For the upper level of society, the roll was
placed in a napkin next to ( or on) one's plate. It
would be used as an extension of one's hand to
M -1395 ( frames 297 -329) transcribed by Dennis Cotner,
1991.
6 Ronald Sheppard and Edward Newton, The Story
of Bread, 1957, Routledge &
Kegan Paul Ltd. Broadway
House, Carter Lane, E. C.4. Printed by Wyman & Sons,
London, Reading and Fakenham.
7 Mary Randolph, The Virginia Housewife, Facsimile of
the 1824 Edition, Notes and Commentaries by Karen Hess,
University of South Carolina Press, 1984.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
22
Meanwhile, Back Across the Atlantic:
Great Britain and Europe in the War Years 1778- 1783
February 6, 1778: In Paris representatives of
America and France sign two treaties —A Treaty
William Pitt the Younger enters Parliament.
becomes a world war. France and Britain de-
Britain's war debt reaches £ 160 million.
June 1780: Riots in London
Gordon Riots: Member of Parliament Lord
George Gordon, retired naval lieutenant, strongly
opposes proposals for Catholic Emancipation.
He leads a crowd of 50,000 to the House of Commons to present a petition for repeal of the 1778
Roman Catholic Relief Act that has removed
clare war after British ships fire on French ves-
certain disabilities. It turns into a five -day riot
sels. Spain enters the war in 1779 as an ally of
France. In 1780 Great Britain declares war on
with many Catholic chapels and private homes
of Amity and Commerce and a Treaty of Alliance. This signals the official recognition of the
United States by France and allows the French
to become the major supplier of arms to the
American army.
The American War of Independence soon
and America. Britain is now fighting, not only
in America, but in the Mediterranean, India,
destroyed. Mobs attack the Bank of England, the
prime minister's residence, and homes of many
prominent politicians. Up to 285 rioters are
killed; Gordon is tried for high treason but found
Africa, and the West Indies. They are also facing
not guilty. Twenty-five rioters are hanged.
a possible French invasion.)
March 9, 1778: In an effort to dissuade Ameri-
November 25, 1781: Word of Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown reaches London. The Amer-
cans from ratifying the treaty with France,
ican Secretary of State Lord George Germain,
Parliament approves Lord North's proposals
acts passed since 1763 to which Americans had
accompanied by two other ministers, drives to
10 Downing Street to inform the prime minister,
Lord North. North's reply: " Oh, God. Oh, God.
objected.
It is all over. It is all over."
March 16, 1778: A peace commission ( the
England is now fighting alone without a single
Carlisle Commission), composed of Lord Carlisle, ( Frederick Howard), William Eden, and
George Johnston, created by Parliament to
ally. Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Portu-
the Dutch who have been trading with France
for reconciliation, including suspension of all
negotiate with the United States, arrives in
Philadelphia with an offer to grant all American
demands except independence. Congress rejects
gal, and Austria form a League of Armed Neu-
trality that defies the British navy's insistence on
searching ships of all nations for war materiel.
Even Holland, formally Britain's protestant partner, becomes an enemy when she tries to join
the proposal.
the League.
April 23, 24, 1778: John Paul Jones, commander of the USS Ranger, raids Whitehaven,
braltar for 3 years. A final attempt to capture it
England, and St. Mary's Isle off Scotland, then
is beaten back, and England retains Gibraltar.
engages and defeats HMS Drake off Belfast,
February 27, 1782: The House of Commons
Ireland.
votes against further war efforts in America.
July 10, 1778. France officially declares war
In late February/ early March 1782 King George
against Great Britain.
September 14, 1778: Benjamin Franklin is
appointed American diplomatic representative
to France.
June 16,
1779: Spain declares war against
1782 France and Spain besiege the Island of Gi-
III even goes so far as to write out an act of abdication. It is never submitted to Parliament:
The Act of Abdication
His Majesty during the twenty one years
He has sat on the Throne of Great Britain has
Great Britain but doesn' t make an alliance with
the United States.
had no object so much at heart as the mainte-
September 23, 1779: John Paul Jones fights a
difficulties He has at times met with from His
battle with a British ship. The British call for
scrupulous attachment to the Rights of Parlia-
his surrender, but Jones replies: " I have not yet
begun to fight." Jones eventually captures the
British vessel just before his own ship sinks.
September 27, 1779: Congress appoints John
Adams to negotiate a peace treaty with Britain.
ment are sufficient proofs.
1780:
Henry Grattan, member of the Irish House of
Commons, demands home rule for Ireland.
nance of the British Constitution, which the
His Majesty is convinced that the sudden
change of Sentiments of one branch of the
Legislature has totally incapacitated him from
either conducting the war with effect, or from
obtaining any peace but on conditions which
would prove destructive to the commerce and
essential rights of the British nation.
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
23
His Majesty therefore with much sorrow
finds He can be of no further Utility to his
native country which drives him to the painful
step of quitting it for ever.
In consequence of which intention His
April 12, 1782: In Paris peace talks begin be-
Majesty resigns the Crown of Great Britain
and the Dominions appertaining thereto to
conducted in Holland by John Adams.
February 3, 1783: Spain recognizes the .new
His dearly beloved son and lawful successor,
George Prince of Wales, whose endeavors for
the prosperity of the British Empire He hopes
United States; later Sweden, Denmark, and
Russia do the same.
may prove more successful.
an end to hostilities with America.
April 26, 4783: Seven thousand loyalists leave
George III
March 5,
1782: Parliament empowers King
tween Benjamin Franklin and Britain's Richard
Oswald.
April 19,
1782: The Netherlands recognizes
the United States as a result of negotiations
February 4, 1783: England officially declares
New York for Canada. This brings to 100,000
George III to negotiate peace with the United
the number of loyalists who have left' America.
States.
1782: Lord North, the British prime
September 3, 1783: Britain signs the Treaty of
Paris ending the American Revolution
minister from 1770 to 1782, resigns and is suc-
December 1783: William Pitt, the Younger,
ceeded by Lord Rockingham who asks for im-
forms a ministry, making him the youngest
prime minister in British history at age 24.
March
mediate negotiations with the American peace
commissioners, John Adams, John Jay, and
Benjamin Franklin.
April 4, 1782: Sir Guy Carleton replaces Gen.
Henry Clinton as commander of British forces
It is estimated that it cost Great Britain
110, 000,000 to lose her American colonies."
France spent £ 55, 000,000 to assist the Ameri-
in America. Carleton implements the new pol-
cans in gaining their independence.
icy of ending hostilities and withdrawing British
America spent £ 20,000,000 to gain indepen-
troops from America.
dence from Great Britain.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
24
And guardian angels sang this strain:
Rule, Britannia! Britannia, rule the waves!
Britons never, never, never shall be slaves!
Question: Is there any difference between
a commonwealth and a state in the United
States?
Answer: In the United States the difference
is in name only. Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Kentucky are commonwealths
according to their constitutions, but they function exactly like any other state in the United
States. Virginia is often referred to as the State
of Virginia, but Commonwealth of Virginia is its
Q&
A
official name.
Commonwealth was originally two words —
Question: Is the song " Rule, Britannia" of
eighteenth -century origin? Who wrote it? (rom
f
a participant in Historic Area divisional training)
Answer: While " God Save the Queen" serves
as the official national anthem of the United
Kingdom, the popular song " Rule, Britannia" is
likewise employed in both official and unofficial
contexts as a close " runner up." The song derives from the poem " Rule, Britannia" by James
Thomson ( 1700 - 1748), a native of Scotland,
who spent most of his adult life teaching and
writing in London. Thomson's poem was set
to music by London composer Thomas Ame
1710 - 1778) for a theatrical production, Alfred,
a masque, about King Alfred the Great, which
Arne co- authored with David Mallet. The play's
first performance was at Cliveden, the country
home of Frederick, Prince of Wales, on August
common ( shared alike by all) and wealth or weal
well being or welfare). In combination these
terms meant something on the order of public
welfare or public good. Over time, common
weal or common wealth became an ordinary
English term meaning the whole body of people
constituting a nation or state, the body politic in
which the whole people have a voice or an in-
terest. For reasons noted below, in seventeenth century England commonwealth came to mean
a state in which the supreme power is vested
in the people. The legislative branch of the
government in which the people' s representa-
tives sat, the House of Commons in the case of
the English Parliament, was therefore the most
powerful.
In 1776 the word commonwealth harkened
back to the period when Oliver Cromwell was
1740. The song, which achieved instant
in charge in England and there was no crown/
monarch and no House of Lords. In Virginia,
popularity when first heard in London in 1745,
Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, the authors
1,
took on a life of its own and has remained—
along with "Land of Hope and Glory" (music by
Sir Edward Elgar, words by A.C. Benson, 1902;
Pomp and Circumstance March no. 1 ") —
an
unofficial national anthem for Britons to the
present day.
Here's the first stanza of Thomson's original
poem:
When Britain, first, at Heaven's command
Arose from out the azure main;
of their constitutions selected that name delib-
erately because they created new governments
with no royalty and no titled aristocracy as part
of the government. The other colonies called
themselves states, but it is curious that none
called itself a republic or a country, all of which
would have been more or less equally legitimate
and correct. " State" and " commonwealth" de-
note no difference among the states.
The General Assembly of Virginia in 1789
This was the charter of the land,
passed an act to allow the area of Virginia
And guardian angels sung this strain:
Rule, Britannia! Rule the waves:
Britons never will be slaves."
known as the district of Kentucky to apply for
Here's how the first stanza and chorus are
sung today:
When Britain first at Heaven' s command
Arose from out the azure main;
Arose, arose, arose from out the azure main;
This was the charter, the charter of the land,
statehood, and on June 1, 1792, Kentucky's nine
counties became a state. The first Kentucky
constitution was very largely influenced by the
first Virginia constitution under which the nine
counties operated until 1792. That is why Ken-
tucky is the fourth commonwealth. ( Linda Rowe,
historian, Department of Historical Research)
�25
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/2009
Question: Would female slaves have been as-
a great seafaring nation like England. All flow
signed to work in the gardens of Williamsburg?
roughly from northwest to southeast into the
Chesapeake Bay, and are navigable considerable
from a garden tour guest, submitted by Al Cummins, Landscape)
Answer: Yes, a female slave, any slave, did
garden work here in town. One likely example:
female slaves working as cooks in town prob-
ably tended their own kitchen gardens. ( Rose
McAphee, training specialist, Department of
Interpretive Training)
Question: Would members of the middling sort
rent" slaves from others? Also, could slaves
distances into the interior.
The shortest Virginia river is the York, which
begins at the confluence of the Pamunkey and
Mattaponi rivers at West Point, some forty - ne
o
miles east of Richmond. The York is about forty
miles long and enters the bay about five miles
east of Yorktown. The longest is the James,
ten times longer than the York, at 410 miles
including its Jackson River source. The James
is the twelfth longest United States river that
is contained entirely within one state. The
earn money? (from a garden tour guest, submitted
by Laura Viancour, Landscape)
Potomac, though at 383 miles slightly shorter
than the James, drains the largest land area.
Answer: Primary documents indicate that
The Rappahannock comes in third in length at
slaves were indeed rented or " hired out." The
practice of hiring out of slaves is often seen in
about 184 miles.
gentry-level households, but it was not restricted
Question: What happened to Virginia's agri-
to the well- to -do. For example, in York County
cultural economy during the Revolution?
orphans accounts, guardians of middling -evel
l
orphans with modest inheritances hired out
some of the estate slaves to generate income
until the minor reached adulthood and took
over management of his or her own affairs.
Sometimes even a person with only one slave
would hire that slave out if the income from it
was of benefit in the circumstances of the slave -
holder. In other words, hiring out would have
depended on the number of slaves, the amount
of work to be done, and the potential benefit to
the slave owner in terms of earnings.
Enslaved persons could be hired out by the job,
or by the day, week, month, or often on an annual
basis. In most cases, the slave owner and the per-
son to whom the slave was to be hired out agreed
on the terms. Some slaves are known to have had
their masters' permission ( or tacit permission) to
hire themselves out. Sometimes the slave could
keep the fee or a portion of it, and sometimes the
master would get the whole amount.
Slaves could sometimes earn money through
selling certain foodstuffs which they could raise
or procure, like fish, poultry, eggs, and other produce. They might also sell items they manufactured themselves, like baskets. They could even
receive tips for services rendered or errands run.
Linda Rowe and Rose McAphee)
Question: How long are the four great rivers of
Answer: Beyond the political upheaval of the
Revolutionary War, the war years often brought
sudden and profound changes to Virginia's rural
plantations and farmsteads. These were felt
in both economic and social terms. Research
historian Lorena Walsh's work on plantation
management, presented in a 2008 Interpretive
Training course on " The American Economy
During and After the Revolution," helps define
interpretive themes for use at Great Hopes
Plantation in support of our Revolutionary City
initiative. Lorena offers an overview of the im-
pact of war on Chesapeake society.
Between 1774 and 1781, Chesapeake planters had no way of predicting the eventual
outcome of the struggle in which they were
engaged. Families had to shape their responses
to the immediate course of events. Optimism altemated with pessimism; individual sacrifice in
public service with unrestrained private greed.
At times strategies for long -term family survival
predominated, but sometimes a chance to make
fast money proved irresistible, however questionable the means.
The war brought material hardships to all
classes, black and white. Shortages of corn, cloth,
shoes, salt, and medicines caused the rich inconvenience while the poor and enslaved shivered
and went hungry. Only families who lived on the
eastern Virginia? (from a participant in Historic
Eastern Shore, where there were more secure overland and coastal routes north, were sure enough of
Area divisional training)
being able to market crops that they maintained
Answer: The four great rivers of Virginia —
from
south to north now called the James, the York,
the Rappahannock, and the Potomac —were a
anything close to pre -war levels of farm produc-
great boon to the settlement of this colony by
to carry bulky produce to distant markets —most
tion. Throughout most of the Tidewater, where
farmers depended on more exposed water routes
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
26
now cut off by the war —production of tobacco
and grains dropped dramatically. Planters received
to salvage something, often by speculation. Sons
of the rich, should they be drafted for service in
scant revenues because they produced few surplus
crops, and they planted little surplus of anything
because they could not be sure of selling it. "What
agriculturalist put money into his pocket for these
the militia, could count on their relatives corn-
years or did more than round his expenditures by
his products ?" one planter asked. A number of
monies in payment of rents and debts came out
well ahead of those who felt honor - ound to supb
large Virginia planters estimated their losses be-
port the cause by accepting these monies. Finally,
tween 1774 and 1782 from " deprivation of crops,
farmers who lived on the Eastern Shore or near
and want of a market for the little that was raised"
towns had better chances to sell crops or to get
hold of imports than did more isolated families.
at £10,000 sterling.
Other losses were more easily assessed. First,
British raiders destroyed crops, livestock, and buildings. Second, in Virginia alone at least 6,000
ing up with money for a substitute if they did not
want to fight, while poor boys could not. Those
who refused to accept continental or state paper
These generalizations are largely drawn from
the experiences of families at the very top. Stud-
tidewater planters who did not lose some of their
ies of the war -time fortunes of small planters and
tenants are as yet too few and scattered to permit
broad generalizations. Jackson T. Main's analysis
chattels. Third, wherever present in any number,
of Virginia tax records for 1782 and 1783 suggest
slaves fled to the enemy, and there were few large
troops spread smallpox, dysentery, and camp fever
that many tenants and small farmers fared badly
to the civilian population, causing additional losses,
after the war, while four local studies suggest simi-
and forcing planters for the first time to pay for mass
smallpox inoculations among their slaves. Fourth,
lar distress among poor whites in Maryland. During the period 1764 - 1789 Chesapeake planters
in some areas herds of cattle and horses had proba-
experienced times both of unprecedented prosper-
bly been depleted in order to provide provision and
ity and of unprecedented hardship. Independence
transport for the army, and in others, timber was
overcut to supply towns and troops with firewood.
was purchased at a high price and, by the end of
the war losers appear to have greatly outnumbered
Finally, everywhere farm buildings deteriorated.
gainers. Consequently, recovery was slow. ( from
With the future so uncertain and crop production
curtailed, planters chose not to repair houses, barns,
and fences. When the war was finally won, there
was a great deal of catching up to do.
An unprecedented amount of absenteeism also
contributed to decline. Before the war few plant-
ers stayed away from home for long. As the crisis
with the mother country deepened, service on
Lorena Walsh via Wayne Randolph, Rural Trades.)
Question: What can you tell us about the cel-
ebration of Easter in early Virginia? (submitted
by Colleen Prosser, interpreter at Great Hopes,
African -American History)
Answer: Easter was ( and is) the most important
local committees of correspondence and safety, in
state government, in the Continental Congress,
holy day in the Church of England calendar.
in the continental army or the state militias, and
finally at the Constitutional Convention and
subsequent state ratifying conventions kept a high
mula by which the date of Easter is calculated: it
falls on the first Sunday after the first full moon
after the spring equinox. Because it comes earlier
proportion of more substantial planters away from
or later each year depending on the astronomi-
their farms for long periods, sometimes for several
years at a time. Losses among ordinary families
cal circumstances, Easter is called a " moveable
feast" in church parlance. The date of Easter
whose men were away in the army were probably
each year determines when all the other nonfixed holidays will occur in relation to it.
higher in proportion to the size of their estates.
Farms left to the total care of wives, overseers, or
general managers suffered, while slaves, probably
The Book of Common Prayer includes the for-
Easter's importance is underscored by Lent,
the somber period of preparation for Easter. Lent
less closely supervised than usual, found more
chances to work less diligently and more opportu-
includes the forty days ( except Sundays) before
nities for running off.
But often the hardships were unevenly shared.
Those who risked most by taking a prominent
are designated as fasting days. ( Diarists note
role in the rebellion, as well as those who too
openly backed the British, lost more by absence
or in the latter case, punitive taxation or outright confiscation) than did those who avoided
extreme positions and sat out the war on their
farms. Men on the spot were in a better position
Easter that begin with Ash Wednesday and which
that Virginians ate the traditional pancakes on
Shrove Tuesday, the day before Ash Wednesday.)
The Church of England did not strictly enforce
fasting. For eighteenth- century Virginians who
wished to comply, however, Lenten fasting seems
to have meant eating nothing until sometime in
the evening and refraining from consumption
of meat. Fish, eggs, and dairy products were ac-
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
27
ceptable substitutes for meat, and cookbooks of
In his entry for the following day, Fithian tells
the day sometimes included recipes for meatless
fasting dishes. All Sundays being feast days in the
us a bit more about the implications of the holi-
day for enslaved Virginians at the Carter estate:
church calendar, meat was an acceptable repast
Easter Monday; a general holiday; Negroes
on the Christian Sabbath, even during the Lenten
now are all disbanded till Wednesday morning
are at Cock Fights through the Country."
As for the Carter family and Fithian himself,
season.
A few early Virginia diaries describe the
nature of the four - ay Easter weekend. Many
d
Mr. & Mrs. Carter ... &
Ben all rode to
worshippers repaired to their parish church on
Day to Richmond Court —I was in the morn-
Good Friday. On April 1, 1774, Philip Vickers
ing strongly solicited to go, but chose to de-
Fithian, a Presbyterian seminarian and tutor in
the home of Robert Carter III in Westmoreland
cline it ...
County, wrote with seeming annoyance:
Good Friday —a general Holiday here —
Wednesday & Thursday I gave up my School
on account of the Dance, and they must have
this Day for Devotion! — The Coloniel, Ben,
Harry, & myself all go to Ucomico Church —
some others to attend a Cock -Fight, where 25
Cocks are to fight, & large Sums are betted,
Parson Smith gave the usual Prayers for the
Day and a long Sermon very suitable & well
chosen.
I was before Dinner very strongly
urged, by Mr. Taylor, Mr. Randolph, &
so large at one as twenty -ive Pounds, but I
f
choose rather to stay at Horne.
After the holiday, Fithian found his plantation pupils less than eager to return to their
studies. On Tuesday he wrote:
It was with difficulty I ant able to collect the
members of our School together for Business.
On Saturday, however, Fithian had the
Holidays have become habitual, & they seem
children until noon back in the school house
unwilling to give them over. As the Negroes
have this Day for a Holiday, our Schollars
at their lessons. John Harrower, a tutor near
Fredericksburg, likewise noted on April 14,
1775: " This being good Friday, I broke up school
for Easter Holly days, and the Colts [ Colonel's]
three sons went to Town with Mr. Porter's two
sons this forenoon."
Easter Sunday saw significant church attendance, the high holy day being one of only three
or four times per year that Holy Communion was
celebrated in parish churches. Fithian described
his Easter Sunday, April 3, 1774, like this:
The Day pleasant; I rode to church — after the
Service proper for the Day, Mr. Smith entertained us with a Sennon from Pauls Defence
before King Agrippa, ' How is it thought a thing
impossible with you that God should raise the
dead ' He in this gave us a very plain & just
Discourse on the doctrine of the resurrection —
thinks it hard that they should be compell' d to
attend to Business. I summon them together
however, and shall keep them to constant
study until the time of my setting away.
Another reference to a Virginia Easter is
found in the diary of Joseph Pilmore, an itinerant minister of the Methodist, or evangelical,
branch of the Church of England. For Thursday
and Friday, April 8 and 9, 1773, he wrote:
I went to Portsmouth and preached to a great
multitude of people on our Saviors Agony in
the Garden, and the next day, being good
Friday, on the sufferings of Christ on mount
Calvary. In the afternoon I preached Christ
crucified in Norfolk.
Pilmore's entry for April 11:
Being Easter Day, I expounded the history of
this being Easter sunday, all the Parish seem'd
our Lord's appearing to Mary, and God made
to meet together, High, Low, black, White, all
his word spirit and life to our souls. We felt
come out —
After Sermon the Sacrament was
the power of Christ's Resurrection, and were
made partakers of his grace. Afterwards heard
the Revd. Mr. Bradford and received the holy
administered, but none are admitted except communicants to see how the matter is conducted
After Sermon I rode to Mr. Turbeville's.
sacrament. In the afternoon my heart was
There dined with him, Ladies, Mrs. Carter, £3
Mrs. George Turburville: Gentlemen, Colonel
greatly enlarged in preaching at Norfolk, and
all people received the word of the Lord with
Carter, Squire Lee, Mr. Cunningham, & Mr.
Jennings, Merchants: Mr. George Lee, & Ben
thankfulness. When I first came here, I was
Carter & Myself — had an elegant dinner:
we
Beef & Greens; roast Pig; fine Boiled Rock -Fish,
Pudding, Cheese, etc. Drink: good Porter - eer,
B
were an Angel of God. This also is of grace
Cyder, Rum & Brandy Toddy. The Virginians
Q & A was compiled by Bob Doares, training specialist in the Department of Interpretive Training.)
are so kind one can scarce know how to dispense
with, or indeed accept their kindness shown in
such a variety of instances.
but little regarded; now they treat me as if I
I will give the glory to the Lord.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
28
Bothy's Mould
Presenting the latest dirt (mould)
from the gardener's hut (bothy).
Wasps, Birds, and Earwigs
The Orchard
r am( ,,., rr,,.
off these destructive Vermin that I have ever
by Wesley Greene
met with, I leant from a curious Gentleman
Wesley is a garden historian in the Landscape De-
of Hartfordshire, which is so cheap and Easy,
partment. You can often find him in costume work-
and so much to the Purpose, that I believe few
ing in the Colonial Garden across the street from
lovers of Gardens will be without it."
He directs to wrap about the Stem of a Tree,
two or three rounds of Line or Rope made of
Bruton Parish Church.
While the eighteenth-century English vegetable gardener was battling caterpillars, snails,
and "flies" in the kitchen garden, their fruit trees
and vines were also under attack from predacious
animals and insects. Eighteenth- century American gardeners largely escaped the ravages of the
common vegetable pests that the English battled
because old world vegetables did not arrive in
the new world with their old world pests. It was a
very different and far more difficult situation for
the orchardist in the American colonies.
Virtually all of the tree fruit that we Americans prize today are European imports including
the apple, pear, peach, nectarine, plum, apricot,
Horse -Hair, such as are commonly used to
hang Clothes upon; these are so full of Stubs
and straggling Points of Hair, that neither a
Snail or Slug can pass over them, without
wounding themselves to Death. 1
This novel defense against snails and slugs on
fruit trees is repeated by many authors for the
rest of the century; however, the tried and true
method of hand picking is not abandoned as we
hear from Thomas Mawe in 1776: " Snails will
often make great havock among the choice kinds
of wall fruit, were they are not interrupted: they
particularly frequent the apricots, nectarines, and
peach- trees, and will do mischief to these kinds
cherry, fig, and pomegranate, though most of
of fruit, if not prevented." 2 He then instructs us
them did not originate in Europe. We do have a
to search for them in the morning, pick them off,
and dump them in scalding water.
few native fruit trees such as the persimmon and
paw -paw as well as some obscure forms of apples
and plums. The blueberry and cranberry are our
While birds can be bothersome in the veg-
etable garden, they are a far more significant pest
best known native fruits and our native straw-
in the fruit orchard as anyone who has grown
berry is one half of the cross that gives us the
modern strawberry, but the fruit trees the colo-
cherries, grapes, or figs will attest. For grapes
nist brought with them still make up the major
portion of fruit consumed in America today.
Some of the pests found in the vegetable gar-
be a very tedious defense in 1779: " It is generally
necessary, at this season of the year [September],
to put some covering over the finest bunches
den were also pests on fruits. John Reid gives us
of grapes, such as bags of guaze, paper, or thin
this warning for the month of April 1721:
crape, in order to preserve them from the attacks
of birds and insects. "3 Benjamin Whitmill gives
us the best defense against birds on grapes: ` Put
It is now that our Gardens begin to be over - un
r
with Snails and Slugs to the great destruction
of our young knit Wall -Fruit [ the fruit of
trees grown against a wall]....
Many ways
have be prescribed to remedy this Evil, as to
lay Tobacco -Dust, Soot, Saw -Dust or Barley -
Chaff round about the Steno of Plants, which
indeed will keep them offfor a little Time, but
the first Rain that falls, gives them full Liberty
to pass over these Fortifications, neither are we
more successful in putting Tar upon the Stems
of Trees, for a few warm Days drys it up:
But the most ingenious Contrivance to keep
William Thompson suggests what would seem to
Nets over your Grapes, to preserve them from
Birds. "4 This is still the primary defense against
birds used by grape growers today. Wall trees are
commonly netted in England to this day but free
standing fruit trees are much more difficult to
net, partly because of size, and also because the
branches of the fruit tree grow through the nets
making them nearly impossible to remove.
For tree fruit, Thompson suggests in 1779:
To prevent Birds from eating Fruit. Smear the
branches of your fruit -rees with the juice of gart
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
29
lick, or hang a bunch of that
you may take an equal quantity of the urine of
root
which
an ox, and the lees of oil, boil them together, and
will drive away the birds." To
when the mixture is cold Sprinkle it over the plants
scare
and trees. "8
on
the
ravens,
trees,
crows,
magpies,
and so forth he advises:
An insect problem that is unique to fruit
Among fruit- trees, it will
trees is the depredations due to the feeding of
be adviseable to draw a
wasps. Both European and English wasps will
line from one tree to another,
damage fruit, though they are secondary pests
and fasten black feathers on
it at moderate distances,
that only attack fruit that has already been
wounded. Once they have access to the fruit,
which will greatly terrify
however, they will quickly hollow it out. By far
these birds. or dead crows, hung up will answer the
the most common method for controlling wasps
is suggested by Mawe in 1776; " Now hang up
same end. "5
A more aggressive, and terminal, method
in the wall trees some phials filled with sugared
is suggested by Leonard Meager in 1704 who
observes that birds: " cloth most mischief in the
water, in order to catch and destroy wasps, and
Winter, by pecking the Blossum-buds... they do
tack the choice fruit. Let at least three such vials
be placed in each of the largest trees; and, even
in the lesser trees, there should not be less than
likewise spoil Cherries, the which both Jack -Daws
and Jayes do: amongst small Birds the Tom - and
tit
Bull-finches do most mischief ... on your Plumb
and Apricock trees ...
you may destroy many
with a good Trunk, or Stone -bow; as for Jays, Magpyes, and Jack dawes, they are to be destroyed by
Shooting them, or with Springs, by them that
know how to set them for the purpose, which
some do; some do take these Fowls alive, and tie
other devouring insects, before they begin to at-
two vials hung up in each ... the insects ... will,
by the smell of the liquor, be decoyed into the
vial, and be drowned. The vials should be often
looked over in order to empty out such insects as
are from time to time catched therein. "
9
Whitmill did not believe that simply emptying
the vials was sufficient, as we hear from him in
them in some convenient place, where they will
1747: " Once every Week the Bottles are to be re-
scrame or cry, especially the Jay, and will cause
newed, and Care is to be taken to Bruise the Insects
divers of their kind to gather together, by which
when they are taken out, for otherwise, though
means you may make greater destruction amongst
them with your Gun. "
6
they are seemingly dead, sometimes in a warm Day
or two they will come to themselves. "10
The webworm is frequently seen on fruit
Thompson believed in going after the wasps
and hornets at their source as well as offering an
trees, particularly on apples, in the spring. John
Worlidge gives us the best control for them in
1716 and it is one that modem gardeners use to
this day: " To prevent their numerous increase
alternative to the vials hung in trees: " If you put
lighted brimstone rags into the wasps nest, and
then fling some earth over the holes, it will deYou may also lay some treacle, the
on Trees, gather them off in Winter, taking
stroy them ...
away the Puckets [ webs] which cleave about the
Branches, and buming them. In the Summer,
entrails of beasts, or sweet apples, in an earthen
whilst they are yet young, when either through
dish, which will draw them in multitudes to
their ruin. "11
the coldness of the Night, or some humidity,
they are assembled together on heaps, you may
of dealing with wasps is provided by an anony-
take them and destroy them. "7
A more tedious but equally effective method
mous " practical gardener" in 1778: " The most
A far more extravagant control method for all
effectual method of catching wasps, is by touch-
sorts of caterpillars is related by Thompson in 1779:
ing them with twigs besmeared with birdlime. "12
Take three ounces of wormwood and one ounce
Bird time is a sticky substance prepared from the
of asa- faetida steep and break them, and boil the
twigs of what the English call the lime tree and
whole in a proper quantity of water; after they are
boiled, strain the ingredients through a cloth, and
apply the liquor, when cold, to the trees, before the
buds are opened, and then the trees will not be
injured. You may, if you please, add to this mixture
generally known in this country as the little leaf
linden. Bird lime has long been used by fowlers
some tobacco -stalks, coloquintida, and other ingre-
Meager in 1704: " There is another sort of Vermin
dients of like nature." He also gives us this
remedy: " Caterpillars
which is a very great annoyance to Cherry-trees ..
may be driven away
by strewing fig -ashes
bers on the leaves and springing Buds, tainting the
Tree, although in a very thriving condition, causing
over the trees. Or
for snaring birds.
Aphids are pests on many types of plants. They
are recognized, although not identified, by Leonard
it is a small black bug, and will be in great num-
the Sap to be at a stand... what the name of it is I
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
30
know not, or whether that Bug, call'd a Lady -bird,
is one of the best ways of detecting aphids, which
do cause them, I know not, but I do commonly
generally feed on the under sides of leaves and
see that Bug on Cherry-Trees, and amongst those
go unnoticed. Ants do not harm the trees other
small Bugs, whether to feed on them, or to cast that
than protecting the aphids, which they milk for
Spawn whereof they come. "13
honeydew, but eighteenth- century garden books
give us many means for killing them nonetheless.
Worlidge provides this advice in 1716: " Ants or
What Meager was seeing, of course, is the ladybug, one of the most effective predators on aphids
although this is seldom recognized by eighteenth-
century authors. A common method for controlling aphids and other insect pests was to wash
them off. Mawe describes the process in 1776: " For
the purpose of watering the branches of ... wall trees, there is nothing so useful and convenient as
a hand -watering engine. By the help of this small
engine, a person may stand on the walks, and with
great ease and expedition throw the water against
Pismires are injurious to a Garden ...
as well by
feeding on Fruits ... To keep them from your
Trees, incompass the Stem four Fingers Breadth,
with a Circle or Rowl of Wool newly picked from
a Sheeps Belly. Or anoint the Stem with Tar. Also
you may make Boxes of Cards or Pastboard pierced
full of holes with a Bodkin, into which Boxes
put the Powder of Arsenick mingled with a little
Honey. Hang these Boxes on the Tree, and they
will certainly destroy them. "18
any part of the trees ...
even if the wall is fifteen
or twenty feet high ...
for the engine will throw
John James believed in going to the source of
the water with such forces against the trees, as to
displace caterpillars, and other insects, and will ef-
the problem: "There is also another Secret to catch
them, which is to throw into the Ant Hill a Bone
half pick'd, which in an instant will be cover'd with
a Million of these Insects, and taking it out quick,
fectually clear the leaves and branches from dust,
cobwebs, and from any sort of filth they may have
at any time contracted. "14
dip it into Water and drown them. "19
The watering engine was similar to our reconstructed fire engine kept at the Magazine guard
A minor pest of trees but one that has engendered many fantastic tales over the years is the
house. John Abercombie describes its operation for
earwig. The name earwig is derived from the Old
us in 1789: " WATERING PUMP ENGINE may
be useful in gardens ... by placing it in walks and
alleys, and the receiver being filled with water, and
with one hand working the pump, the other guid-
ing the pipe, made to tum in any direction. "15 A
little more sophisticated device was the fumigating
English " earwicga" which means " ear beetle" and
the belief that they will burrow into your ear to lay
their eggs or feast on your brain has been with us for
hundreds of years. The origin of the legend is obscure. Cobham Brewer postulated in 1898 that the
insect is named " because the hind wings resemble
bellows, which was the predecessor to the modem
in shape the human ear." 2° The Columbia Encyclo-
pesticide applicator. Mawe describes one in 1776:
pedia theorizes that " the superstition that earwigs
for destroying insects on fruit trees, there is an
invention called Fumigating Bellows, having a tube
or pipe to fix on occasionally, in which is burned
tobacco; and by working the bellows, the smoak of
the tobacco will issue forth in a full stream, and kill
crawl through the ears and into the brains of sleep-
the insects. "16
on fruit. However, the eighteenth century gardener
ing persons probably derives from their nocturnal
habits and the tarry or waxy odor of a secretion of
their abdominal glands." Earwigs feed partially on
rotten fruit or animals so they are not a primary pest
as an effective pesticide from the eighteenth
was not happy with any type of creature on their
fruit trees and formulated imaginative ways of dis-
century to the first half of the twentieth cen-
pensing with them.
Nicotine extracts from tobacco were used
tury. It has been applied both as a fumigant and
as a dust. Mawe gives us instructions for using
tobacco dust in 1776: " But where any of the
wall- trees, young or old, are much over run with
these small vermin, let the following precautions
be taken to destroy them. Pick off all the curled
leaves, for these generally swarm with insects;
then get some tobacco -dust, and scatter some of
it over all the branches, but most on those places
where the insects are troublesome. This should
be strewed over the trees in a morning, and let it
remain. It will greatly diminish the insects, and
not in the least injure the plants or fruit. "17
Worlidge tells us in 1716: " Earwigs
in some years prove injurious
to Fruits, by the greatness
of their numbers feeding
on and devour-
ing them. And
are destroyed by
placing Hoofs or Hams
of Beasts amongst your
Trees and Wall- fruit,
into which they will resort. Early in the Morning
you must take them gently, but speedily off, and
shake them in a Vessel of scalding Water."2t And,
Whenever plants are infested with aphids, ants
should the ultimate tenor actually happen, Thomp-
are a sure companion to them and their presence
son gives us the remedy: " If an earwig should hap-
�31
Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
melon, apply it to your ear, and lie on that side; the
ishes normal. In 1817 William Coxe produced an
illustrated work on fruit26 that pictured the fruit
insect will then come into the fruit "
22
Finally there is the danger of the larger beasts
destroying your trees; in this instance, fences make
with damage from codling moth, apple scab, fly
speck, and many other diseases as this was considered the normal appearance offruit at the time. By
the best neighbors as explained by Meager in
1704: " Orchards, and Nurseries, have divers other
studying the illustrations in Coxes's work (done by
pen to get into your ear, cut a hole in a ripe apple or
Enemies and Casualties whereby they are apt to
be spoiled, as Deers, Goats, Hares, and Coneys
young rabbits] , the best and surest prevention is
a good Fence." If this does not work, especially for
rabbits who are experts at getting around fences, a
little cloth soaked with dung should do the trick:
by wrapping some old, either Woollen or Linnen
Cloaths, or old Stockings, about each Tree ...
and
then dawb it with any kind of dung or garbage
of Coneys, & c. and this will cause that they will
not meddle with your Trees so long as the smell
thereof remains. "23
his daughters), the twentieth-century plant pathologist P.L. Richter was able to identify the common
fruit pests of the period.
It was also in the early nineteenth century
that the importance of birds in controlling
insects was recognized. Benjamin Smith Bar-
ton wrote Of the Usefulness of Birds, partially
reprinted in An American Farmer ( 1803 ), which
encouraged insect eating birds such as bluebirds,
woodpeckers and house wrens, writing that
gardeners should obtain: " 10 or 15 pairs of these
small birds. "27 This was one of the first steps
towards a holistic approach to pest control and
There is conflicting documentation about how
begins to leave behind the eighteenth century
the orchard fared when it reached the New World.
William Cobbett wrote in 1821 of America: "there
wisdom that anything observed on a fruit tree
should probably be killed.
are no blights of fruit trees worth speaking of."24
However, two of the most devastating diseases
1 John Reid, The Gard' ners Kalendar, 1721
of fruit were waiting for the colonists when they
2 Thomas Mawe, Every Man his own Gardener, 1776
arrived in North America. The grape phylloxera
3 William Thompson, The New Gardener's Calendar, 1779
is a small sap sucking insect related to the aphid
4 Benjamin Whitmill, Kalendarium Universale, 1747
that made the growing of European wine grapes
in North America practically impossible. It was
not until the 1830s that German immigrants in
Missouri discovered that grafting European wine
stock onto native American grape varieties con-
ferred a resistance to the grape phyhlloxera.
Another serious North American pest of fruit
5 Thompson , The New Gardener's Calendar
6 Leonard Meager, The Complete English Gardner, 1704
7 John Worlidge, A Compleat System of Husbandry and
Gardening, 1716
8 Thompson, The New Gardener's Calendar
9 Mawe, Every Man his own Gardener
that causes havoc in the orchard to this day is the
10 Whitmill, Kalendarium Universale
plum curculio, which inflicts damage on almost all
11 Thompson, The New Gardener's Calendar
tree fruits, including peach, apricot, cherry, apple,
12 A Practical Gardener, The Practical Gardener, 1778
pear as well as plum. Jefferson battled this pest
but was not able to identify it. In a 1791 letter to
Thomas Mann Randolph, he relays the erroneous
information that it is the Hessian fly, a pest on
wheat that was infesting his orchard. " 1 do not
think that of the weavil of Virginia has been yet
Bartram here tells me that
13 Thompson, The New Gardener's Calendar
14 Mawe, Every Man his own Gardener
15 John Abercrombie, The Complete Kitchen Gardener,
1789
16 Mawe, Every Man his own Gardener
sufficiently detailed ...
it is one & the same insect which by depositing
17 Ibid
it's egg in the young plumbs, apricots, nectarines
19 John James, The Theory and Practice of Gardening, 1712
20 Cobham Brewer, Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, 1898
peaches renders them gummy and good for
nothing." John Bartram attributed his success
with plums to frequently shaking the trees which
18 Meager, The Complete English Gardner
21 Meager, The Complete English Gardner
caused the curculio to " tumble off "25 Frequently
22 Thompson, The New Gardener's Calendar
shaking fruit trees would, indeed, provide some
23 Meager, The Complete English Gardner
measure of control against this insect.
24 William Cobbett, The American Gardener, 1821
There are many diseases of fruit that produce
blemishes but do not harm the quality of the fruit.
While modem shoppers will not tolerate this at
market ( and is a primary reason for the over use of
pesticides in our orchards today), the eighteenth -
century consumer considered many of these blem-
25 Peter Hatch, The Fruit and Fruit Trees of Monticello,
1998
26 William Coxe, A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees,
1817
27 Hatch, The Fruit and Fruit Trees of Monticello
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
32
classes were held at Monticello, UVA, the Jef-
Interpreter' s
Corner
ferson Library, and the university library. Many
days we were taken on field trips to other sites
such as Lynchburg and Jefferson's Poplar Forest plantation nearby, Bremo plantation —an
A Gonzales
other Jefferson- designed house — (Upper Bremo,
Fund Report:
Lower Bremo, and Bremo itself), and one day
Attending
the Historic
g:_. Landscape
Institute
actually visiting Colonial Williamsburg and
having lunch at King's Arms Tavern.
The classes themselves were primarily about
historic preservation and what many historic
sires are doing to maintain their place in the
twenty -first century.
For example, in 2004 Monticello purchased
by Donald McKelvey
Mountalto ( high mountain), a 330 -acre adja-
Don is a garden historian in the Landscape Department.
cent property once owned by Thomas Jefferson and which rises 400 feet above his home,
joining with others in an attempt to preserve
I attended the Historic Landscape Institute
the viewscapes from historic sites as much as
possible ( which means no modem buildings,
HLI) in June 2007. I was very pleased to have
received the Gonzales scholarship* that allowed
power lines, cell towers, etc., intruding on the
me to take part in the Institute. The group last
has started a program with the Garden Club of
year was smaller than usual —there were only
eleven of us participating. The HLI is a joint
venture between Monticello and the University
of Virginia. It is a unique educational experience
in the theory and practice of historic preservation. It offers participants an introduction to the
fields of landscape history, garden restoration,
and historical horticulture by using landscapes
designed by Thomas Jefferson at Monticello and
the University of Virginia as case studies and outdoor classrooms. Peter Hatch, director of grounds
for Monticello, and Mary Hughes, landscape
architect from UVA, head up the program.
For ten days we enjoyed Monticello's hospi-
tality, which included some behind the scenes
tours of the house. We were lodged in the
oldest part of the university' s
campus —the
Lawn area —that was designed by Jefferson. Our
historical vistas.)
The University of Virginia
Virginia to renovate all of the gardens that sur-
round the Lawn and the original Jefferson part
of the campus.
For me the Historic Landscape Institute was
a great inspiration, giving me cause to reflect on
what I do at Colonial Williamsburg and making
me realize what a great job we do here at CW.
The Mary and Donald Gonzales Field Experience Fund was established by an anonymous
Colonial Williamsburg donor in 2006. The fund
provides individual grants of up to $ 5, 000 for
continuing education opportunities for nonmanagement employees with the Landscape
Services Department, Division of Research and
Historical Interpretation, and Collections, Conservation, and Museums Division.
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008 /2009
33
New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library' s
Special Collections
Collection of the Acts of Parliament pertaining to
United States. Continental Congress. In Con-
the North American Colonies, 1764 - 1778. This
colonies enacted between 1764 and 1780. In-
gress July 4th, 1776. : the unanimous Declaration
of the thirteen United States of America ... A facsimile of the Declaration by the Hartford penmanship and writing master Eleazer Huntington
cluded in this collection are the official print-
published between 1820 and 1824.
is a collection containing thirty-eight acts passed
by Parliament conceming its North American
ings of the Sugar Act ( 1764), the Currency Act
1764), the Quartering Act ( 1765), the Repeal
of the Stamp Act ( 1766), the Declaratory Act
Boston Investigator ( Boston: Abner Kneeland,
September 9, 1831) This issue contains an ac-
1766), the Revenue Act ( 1767), the New York
count of the Southampton County, Virginia,
Restraining Act ( 1767), the Boston Port Act
1774), the Administration ofJustice Act (1774),
the Massachusetts Government Act ( 1774), the
New England Restraining Act ( 1775), and the
Prohibitory Act ( 1775). MS2008.4
insurrection led by Nat Turner.
Independent
Chronicle (
Boston:
Adams &
Rhoades, March 18, 1816). This issue contains
an account of an intended slave insurrection in
Spotsylvania County, Virginia.
Letters of George William Fairfax, 1779 - 1780.
The first letter from Fairfax to George Nicholas
grants Nicholas power of attorney over the Virginia estates belonging to Fairfax. The second
letter from Nicholas to Craven Peyton instructs
Peyton to collect the rents due on Fairfax's
lands. Fairfax had left Virginia for England in
London Chronicle ( London: John Wilkie, July
1-July 4, 1769) This issue contains an account of
the events leading to Governor Botetourt's disso-
lution of the House of Burgesses in May 1769.
1773. Though friendly to the American cause,
London Chronicle ( London: John Wilkie, August
24—
August 26, 1769) This issue contains an ac-
he never returned to Virginia. MS2008. 1
count of an intended slave insurrection in James
City County.
United States. Continental Congress. In Con-
gress July 4th, 1776. : the unanimous Declaration
A
London Gazette ( London: Thomas Harrison,
March 10 to March 14, 1778) This issue con-
facsimile of the Declaration by Washington,
tains an account of the repeal of the tax on tea.
of the thirteen United States of America ...
D.C. penmanship instructor Benjamin Owen
Tyler published in 1818. MS2008. 2
St. James's Chronicle, or, British Evening - ost ( LonP
don: Henry Baldwin, August 8 to August 10,
United States. Continental Congress. In Con-
1776) This issue contains a letter from a " Virginia
gress July 4th, 1776.: the unanimous Declaration
A
of the thirteen United States of America ...
Planter" who writes that it was the Prohibitory
facsimile of the Declaration by John Binns
that made the idea of independence popular.
Bill and the buming of the towns on the sea coast
published in 1819. The text is decorated with
an ornamental border containing portraits of
George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and
The Weekly Amusement ( Sherborne: Robert
Goadby, September 29, 1764) This issue con-
John Hancock. Portraitist Thomas Sully was
tains an account of an encounter between Lt.
one of the artists who worked on this piece.
Governor William Gooch and a slave on the
streets of Williamsburg. Gooch served in Vir-
MS2008. 3
ginia from 1727 to 1749. He died in 1751.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
34
Anecdote of Sir William Gooch, some Time
phlets in defense of the Stamp Act. He served
Governor of Virginia.
NOTHING is unworthy of Publication
as under secretary of state for American affairs
from 1770 to 1782.
which may convey an useful Lesson to
Mankind. Sir William Gooch being in Con-
Hamilton, Alexander, John Jay, James Madison.
versation with a gentleman in a Street of
The Federalist, on the new Constitution , , ,
the City of Williamsburgh, returned the
Salute of a Negro, who was passing by
York: George E Hopkins, 1802. The last edition
of the Federalist published during Hamilton's
about his Master's business. Sir, said the
Gentleman, does your Honour descend
lifetime.
so far as to salute a Slave? Why ( replied
the govemor) yes; I cannot suffer a Man
of his Condition to exceed me in Good
Manners.
Britain and her colonies reviewed ...
Lamb, Roger. An original and authentic account of
occurrences during the late American War, from its
commencement to the year 1783. Dublin: Wilkinson &
Knox, William. The controversy between Great
London,
J. Almon, 1769. In this work, Knox refutes
the claims of the colonists that they have any
exemption from the legislation of Parliament.
Former colonial agent for Georgia, Knox was
removed from his post for writing two pam-
New
Courtney, 1809. This is a history and
personal account of the American Revolution.
The author was a sergeant in the Royal Welch
Fusileers.
Submitted by Douglas Mayo, head, special collections, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Library.)
�Vol. 29, No. 3, Winter 2008/ 2009
35
Publication of
this issue of the Interpreter
was made possible
by a gift from
James H. and Sherry P. Hubbard
of Severna Park, Maryland
This issue of the Interpreter
is dedicated to our esteemed editor,
Nancy Milton.
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter is published
three times a year by the Research and Historical
Interpretation Division.
Editor:
Nancy Milton
Assistant Editor: Linda Rowe
Editorial Board: Emma L. Powers, Cathy Hellier,
Kevin Kelly, Lorena Walsh
Planning Board: Laura Arnold, Harvey Bakari,
Bertie Byrd, Bob Doares,
Jan Gilliam, Wesley Greene,
Andrea Squires, John Turner,
Ron Warren, Pete Wrike
Production:
The Marketing Creative
Services Department
Diana Freedman
2008 The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. All rights reserved.
All images are the property of
The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, unless otherwise noted.
�A COLONIAL WILLIN6BURC ADVENTURE
R*
EVOLUTIONAR
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter, volume 29, number 3, Winter 2008
Description
An account of the resource
Charlton's Coffeehouse Archaeology -- Brief Eighteenth-Century History of the Coffeehouse Property -- Resurrecting the Coffeehouse -- English Coffeehouses -- Cook’s Corner: The Staff of Life — Bread!! -- Meanwhile, Back Across the Atlantic: Great Britain and Europe in the War Years, 1778-1783 -- Questions and Answers -- The Bothy’s Mould: Wasps, Birds, and Earwigs: The Orchard -- The Interpreter’s Corner: A Gonzales Fund Report: Attending the Historic Landscape Institute -- New at the Rock: New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library's Special Collections
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/0b5cadfd72af292ebc3b7081bcdb3ff7.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=YrFebgJLOsZWxOtdmPjIH9aEtTv-Aer8CqkNwT3pWtcBt%7EVRuna8OFM4HJqhQqdcK3DD88Nn-zVldHwJJLALeeGzqD45c9dFp3cWzkyW2FSPMH9ao1PfGpLJQPjmUbRhA9yx7C9aPZfmDGNjv8aaVhK0oWkPy%7EAJhWGdiIaFL4hMiowXkWBo4L2Ael75gPOJzuf5-5gldQOKz7e8cXPuFyQPg18vhnWVoy5adzFSF3ItveniMb9l19kSrzpRsb1l2%7Ef5QP8uGI%7E8CuJQqaT4HnAM1j06cpj%7Ehfn3vQro3hcupitNSoC3YsuKfOfAnq09uJsBR5o7AW0S-QRkVm9BQA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
d868bafec05ea11110d35c01bfe960b4
PDF Text
Text
COLONIAL
WILLIAMSBURG
VOL. 29, NO. 2
SUMMER/ FALL 2008
Revolutionary Reflections:
Voices from the War Years in Williamsburg
Detail of College of William and Mary from the Bodleian Plate.
From Journal ofJourneys to the South, 1777 -1778
by Ebenezer Hazard. Hazard was a bookseller
affords a beautiful Prospect of the City & the adjacent
Country; James River may be seen from it, as may
from New York who twice traveled south in 1777
York River in a clear Day.
as surveyor general for the Post Office. Below is
his description of midwar Williamsburg.
The Mad House
1777
not choose to have my Humanity shocked by a Sight of
At the Front of the College is a large Court
Yard, ornamented with Gravel Walks, Trees
cut into different Forms, & Grass
its wretched Inhabitants, I did not go into it.
The Mad - ouse is a three Story Building, but as I did
H
Forty Cherokee Indians in Town
May] 31st. Breakfasted at Williamsburgh. The
There are 40 Cherokee Indians in Town, among
Road from Cartwright's [ a house sixteen miles from
which are Attakullakulla, Oucanestota or the Little
Carpenter, & the Pidgeon. Went to see them, shook
Williamsburg) is very sandy & deep. Williamsburgh
is the Capital of Virginia, situated partly in York &
partly in James City Counties. It is but small; I think
not larger than Wilmington in Pennsylvania. The
Also in this issue .. .
Houses are chiefly framed; the Streets are straight.
Who's Who in the Publick Gaol, 1776 - 1777"
The Principal Buildings are the College, the Mad -
by L. Rowe
House, the Palace &
As the Dust Settles: An Update on the
the Capitol, all of Brick. The
first is badly contrived & the Inside of it is shabby; it is
Archaeological Excavations at the James
21/ 2 Stories high, has Wings & dormer Windows. At
Wray Site" by M. Kostro and A. Edwards
each End of the East Front is a two Story brick House,
Cook's Comer" by L. Arnold
5
one for the President, the other is for an Indian School.
At this Front of the College is a large Court
8
13
Bothy's Mould: Snails, Flies, and
Yard, ornamented with Gravel Walks, Trees cut into
different Forms, & Grass ... at the South end .. .
Caterpillars, Pt. 1" by W. Greene
16
Q & A "by B. Doares
21
is a small Chapel for the use of the Students; Sir John
Interpreter's Comer: Christmas Music"
Randolph, Lord Bottetourt , & Peyton Randolph Esqr.
by J. Hanson
late President of the Congress, are buried here; at the
North end is a Room allotted for a Divinity School,
but there have been no Students in it for several Years;
there are but 18 Students belonging to the College, &
about 30 Grammar Scholars; the College has been on
the Decline for some Years. The Top of this Building
24
New Titles in the Janice McCoy
Memorial Collection for Youth John D.
Rockefeller Jr. Library"
27
New Items in Special Collections"
by G. Yetter
29
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
2
Hands and smoked Part of a Pipe with them. They
are painted, &
ornamented with Feathers, &
their
Ears are cut. It is said their Business here is to clear
the Path between their Country & this....
Lodged
at Anderson' s. A good House.
the Lobby of the House of Burgesses, & from thence
into the Room where they sit; the latter is large,
convenient, &
plain; the Speaker's Chair & a large
Iron Stove are at the upper End, on each Side the
Seats for the Members, & at the lower End a Gallery
for the use of Spectators.
His Excellency Patrick Henry Esqr. the
Govr. was present
On one side of this Room hangs a whole Length
of King George the 2d. & on the other another of
June 1st. Heard a Mr. Bracken preach. The Church
Queen Caroline. The other Rooms in the Capitol
Bruton Parish Church] at Williamsburgh is a small
are large but contain nothing worthy of observation.
neat Brick Building, with a Steeple: there is a very
good Organ in it. The Assembly was large & plainly
dressed; his Excellency Patrick Henry Esqr. the Govr.
was present; he appears to be between 40 & 50
Years of Age, & is very swarthy. The Govrs. Pew
is elegant, &
elevated above the rest: a silk Curtain
hangs on cinch Side & in the Front of itfrom a Canopy
supported by two fluted, gilt Pillars. The Ladies here
are not handsome. The Govrs. Salary is 61000.
On the top of the Capitol is a Cupola, &
a Clock
with four Dials.
A Musical Entertainment & Ball at the
Capitol
June] 4th. There is to be a musical Entertainment
Ball at the Capitol this Evening for the Benefit of
Mr. Pelham, the Organist at the Church.
5th. The Entertainment last Night was very fine,
the Music excellent, the Assembly large & polite, &
the 1 ndies made a brilliant Appearance.
The Water at Williamsburg is very bad
6th. The Water at Williamsburg is very bad;
no Beer or Cyder in Town —Grog or Toddy, or
Sangaree, made with vile water is the only Drink
to be had, which, with the Heat of the Weather is
sufficient to keep a Man in a continual Fever... .
7th. Williamsburg is situated upon a Ridge between
the Rivers York on the North & James on the South,
about 3 Miles from each of them, &
The Governor's Pew in Bruton Parish Church
A Law for taxing Bachelors.
June] 2nd. Presented a Memorial [ suggesting
that postmasters and post riders be exempted
from military duties] to the Assembly who are now
sitting in the Capitol. I understand they propose
to pass a Law for taxing Bachelors ( unclear what
Hazard refers to here; perhaps recruitment, oaths
of allegiance or tithables ?)
A fine whole Length Picture of Queen Anne
The Capitol is a large two Story Brick Building in the
form of an H: it is surrounded with a Brick Wall; . .
In the Front of the Building is a Portico & Balcony,
each supported by four Pillars; above these the King's
Arms ( elegantly carved & gilt) were formerly placed,
but upon Independence being declared they were
taken down and burned. Upon entering the Capitol
you get into a Room in which the Courts of Justice
are held; it is large &
convenient; here is a fine
whole Length Picture of Queen Anne by Van Dyck.
Opposite to the Door by which you enter this Room
in another Apartment, which is a Kind of Hall) is
an elegant white marble pedestrian Statue of Lord
60 from the
Capes of Virginia, called Henry & Charles.
The late extraordinary Drought
A fine refreshing Rain, & a great Deal of it, fell
today. It was much wanted as the Grain & c. have
suffered greatly by the late extraordinary Drought.
Queen Anne's Port
Sth. Went to what is called Queen Anne's Port [Capitol
Landing); it is a landing Place about a Mile from
Williamsburgh, upon a Creek called Queen's Creek
which empties itself into York River. A Mile on the
other Side of the City is Archer's Hope, another Creek,
which empties into James River [College Landing].
A small, regular, sandy, dusty, wooden,
unpaved City
9th. More Rain today, with more severe Thunder
Lightning than yesterday. Williamsburgh, in
a few Words, is a small, regular, sandy, dusty,
wooden, unpaved City.
November 1777
Lodged at Mr. Purdie' s
22d. Fine, clear, pleasant Weather. Got to
Botetourt in his Robes... .
Williamsburgh by Noon [ from Fredericksburg].
From the Hall where this Statue is placed you go into
Lodged at Mr. Purdies's.
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
3
The Town [ York] has been much damaged
23d. Very pleasant Weather. Rode to York, a
small Town agreeably situated on York River;
there are some good Houses here but the Town has
been much damaged by the Licentiousness of our
Soldiers. It is defended by a Battery, & some armed
Vessels at present.
Directly opposite to York is Gloucester, a small Town.
York River here is about 3/ 4 of a Mile wide, &
navigable by Ships of the greatest Burthen. Returned
to Williamsburg. The Assembly Ls now sitting.
Fort Mifflin had been evacuated
27th. When we recd. Information per post that
Fort Mifflin ( on Delaware) had been evacuated.
The Garrison of this Fort under the Command of
Col. Green of Rhode Island have acquired immortal
Honor by their spirited Defense of it.
A Bill ...
for impressing Necessaries for the
Army
The Assembly of Virginia have voted that 5000
Volunteers be raised & equipped, & sent to join Gent.
Washington. A Bill is pending & will probably pass for
impressing Necessaries for the Army.
A large Fire from the Sky
At Night there was an extraordinary luminous
Appearance in the northern sky; it was of a dusky
red, much like the Reflection of a large Fire from the
Sky; its Extent was great. I suspect it to have been
art unusual Aurora Borealis, but many People are
of a different Opinion.
Badness of the Road
Decr. 1. Intended setting out for Edenton, [ North
Carolina] but am told I cannot get to James Town
on Accott. of the Badness of the Road. Fine clear
weather, but streets very sloppy.
A Draft ...
confined to Bachelors, &
I purchased a Black Horse
8th. Set out for Edenton, but being unable to cross
James River was obliged to return to Williamsburgh.
In my way to James Town I purchased a Black
Horse of Mr. Harrison Randolph for which I paid
65 Virginia Currency. Mr. Randolph says he is
nine Years old.
Rain, Hail, & Snow
9th. Very disagreeable Weather: Rain, Hail, &
Snow, the most of the Day.
Sold my Sorrel
11th. Sold my Sorrel Horse for £ 40 Virginia
Currency.
College ...
Revenues much impaired by the
Present Troubles
12th. The Governors of William & Mary College
have advertised some of their Lands to be lett, &
some of their Negroes & farming Utensils for Sale.
Their Revenues are much impaired by the Present
Troubles which prevent the Exportation of Tobacco,
upon each [ hogshead] of which they were formerly
allowed a Duty by Act of Assembly.
Gaming is amazingly
prevalent in Wmsburg
Widowers
13th. There is a severe
Decr. 2d. I find the Assembly have given up the
Act of Assembly against
Gaming, but I observe the
Project of Volunteers mentioned Novr. 27th. &
prefer a Draft which is to be confined to Bachelors,
Widowers who have no Children. The Law for
impressing Necessaries for the Army was printed
very secretly) on Saturday Night, & some Goods
were seized in Town ( Wmsbg) today in Consequence
ofit. Only such Things are to be taken as People have
for Sale, for which a reasonable Price is to be paid.
Not much entertained
4th. Went to hear the Debates in the House
of Delegates ( Assembly) but was not much
entertained, having no Interest in the Subjects of
them, which were rather local.
Members of that House
are
as
much
addicted
it as other Men, &
to
as
frequently transgress the
Law. I have known one of
them bett 30 Dollars upon an odd Trick at Whist
Gaming is amazingly prevalent in Wmsburg.
The Legislature ...
by no Means as
respectable as the former ones
The Legislature are at present engaged upon the
Subject of Taxation; I find their Conduct gives great
Uneasiness. I am told their present House is by no
Means as respectable as the former ones.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
4
Nine french Soldiers deserted
14th. A Methodist of the name of Hill preached in
the Capitol; he appears to be an honest Man, but
were spent in familiarizingourselves with Williamsburg
the capital ofVirginia) and with its surroundings... .
Many of its inhabitants have been ruined by the
does not shine as a Preacher. Nine french Soldiers
frequent visits from enemies and friends. After the
deserted last night.
arrival of Arnold in Portsmouth, the Assembly, which
used to meet in Williamsburg, withdrew to Richmond,
sixty miles inland on the left bank of the James River
towards the West), where they were better protected
Safe over Sandy Bay
15th. Set out for Edenton. Got safe over Sandy
Bay ( a narrow, deep Gut, washed through the
Sand near James Town, by the Tide, which is very
from the incidents of war than in Williamsburg.
dangerous at high water) & James River, &
We found very few horses ...
rode to
Cornwallis
Nelson's where I lodged.
and Tarleton having found them very much
to their liking
The Journal of Claude Blanchard, Commissary of
the French Auxiliary Army sent to the United States
during the American Revolution, 1780 - 1783. This
This city consists of two large, parallel streets and of
gives an account of Blanchard's experiences as
chief commissary to Rochambeau's army when
he was headquartered in Williamsburg in the
fall of 1781.
three orfour lesser ones that bisect themperpendicularly.
Not all the streets are paved, but there are some
sidewalks ( kept in good repair) along the main ones.
There are three, large, very well constructed buildings:
the College, the Capitol, and the Governor's Pal are.
The first two are at the extremities of the main street,
facing each other and a mile apart. The third is in very
September /October 1781
He [ Washington] had not been in his own
country since the beginning of the war
At last, after having wandered for a long time in
an unknown river, we landed two leagues from
Williamsburg, where M. de la Fayette was posted;
bad condition, but the great hall and other rooms,
although damaged, still show that Lord Dunmore
the last English governor) must have lived there in
great style. The Capitol is now without magistrates
and law courts and the College without professors
and students. Instead, these buildings, as well as two
at least that is what a woman told us whom we met.
churches, are about to be used for the establishment of
There was no house or place where we landed and
hospitals and for the army depot. The population of the
we were compelled to go along way on foot. At length
city is very large at this time, but the war has caused
much suffering, as I have already observed. We found
very few horses, since all the wealthy citizens have sent
we arrived at a deserted house where were two persons
who let us in, but neither furniture nor provisions. We
lay upon the floor. The next day, having hired horses,
we proceeded to Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia. It
consists of only a single street, but very broad and very
theirs into the interior, Cornwallis and Tarleton having
found them very much to their liking.
handsome. Two or three public buildings, pretty large,
One of the wings of the College ...
are also to be seen there. We got in at the quarters of
M. de la Fayette, where I found M. Chastellux, who
reduced to ashes
had arrived the evening before, with M. de Rochambeau
and M. de Washington. They had got in advance by
making forced marches across Maryland and Virginia.
of the wings of the College, which was used as an
This latter province is General Washington's birthplace;
he has there a very handsome dwelling -house, where
he received our two generals; he had not been in his
own country since the beginning of the war. A body
of Americans under the command of M. de la Fayette
were encamped near Williamsburg.
was
In spite of the warnings issued to prevent fire, one
army hospital, was reduced to ashes on November
23; fortunately, the fire did not reach the main
part of the building, and all the wounded officers
who were in this wing were removed in time. The
French] King got off for £ 12, 000 in damages, in a
settlement that M. de Rochambeau negotiated with
the President [of the college], Mr. Madison, who had
lost a large part of his library and several very fine
physics instruments.
Revolutionary Journal: 1780 -1783 of Baron Von
Clasen, a captain in the Deux Ponts Regiment.
Hospitable ...
November 1781
One could not be more hospitable than are the
inhabitants of Williamsburg to all the army officers;
to all the army officers
Many of its [ Williamsburg' s] inhabitants
have been ruined by the frequent visits from
they receiving them very cordially in their homes
enemies and friends
for them ( according to the custom of the country,
and do all in their power to provide entertainment
however). In this city, the fair sex, although they are
On November 19th. The order was given for duty
not the prettiest 1 have seen, form a very agreeable
in Williamsburg. The first hours in our winter quarters
and, in general, very well bred society.
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer / ail 2008
F
5
Who's Who in the Publick Gaol, 1776 - 1777
by Linda Rowe
Linda is a historian in the Department of Historical Research and assistant editor of this publication.
In the cases of Benjamin Higgins, Habakuk
Pride, and Samuel Flanagin " no proceedings
have been transmitted from the Courts of
the Counties where they were respectively
examined."
Thomas Potter " appears by the Depositions
of several Witnesses who were sworn upon
his examination to be innocent thereof ."
Mary Howell " who is charged with murder
and now on her way from the County of
Berkeley is guilty" based on the deposition of
one Elizabeth Hultz.
There were several persons charged with
felonies confined in the Publick Gaol as of June
Thomas and Elizabeth McCluskey, Thomas
11, 1776. Their names appear in a report of a
committee appointed by the Fifth Virginia Con-
Potter, and Benjamin Higgins were not tried
or otherwise examined by a tribunal or court.
Rather, the Convention entertained a reso-
vention to verify prisoners' names and offenses.
lution that the McCluskey husband -and -wife
Edmund Randolph, a member of the committee,
team, Potter, and Higgins " be forthwith dis-
reported out the following information to the
charged out of Custody." After a second reading,
convention on June 11, 1776, based on a certificate from the keeper of the public jail:
Scheduled for trial at a Court of Oyer and
and these four went free immediately on the
Terminer in December 1775 ( court did not
meet) or at a General Court in April 1776
court did not meet) were
Thomas McCluskey and Elizabeth his Wife —
the resolution was agreed to by the Convention,
strength of the Convention's adoption of this
resolution.
A second resolution that " some mode of trial
be adopted for the delivery of Samuel Flanagin,
Manasses McGahey, Habakuk Pride and Mary
burglary
Howell" was put to the convention. After a sec-
Manasses ( or Manasseh) McGahey— murder
Benjamin Higgins— robbery
Thomas Potter —horse stealing
ond reading, the convention ordered this resolu-
day. Accordingly, on June 12, 1776, this second
Habakuk Pride —murder
resolution received a second reading after which
tion "to lie on the Table" to be taken up the next
Samuel Flanagin —horse stealing
it was adopted by the convention with an amend-
On her way to Williamsburg from Berkeley
ment that "some mode of Trial be adopted for the
County for trial in June 1776 was
Mary Howell— murder
Randolph's report also stated that
The McCluskeys and Higginses had a right
delivery of Habakuk Pride and Mary Howell."
Only Samuel Flanagin and Manasses McGahey
according to antient practice to demand a
discharge from their Confinement" because
they had been ready for trial since December
1775 and " no prosecution having been carried on against them." Moreover, Elizabeth
received pardons, again on the strength of a reso-
lution adopted by the convention not a hearing
or trial before a tribunal or court:
Whereas Samuel Flanagin and Manasses
McGahey have been severally committed to
the publick Gaol in the city of Williamsburg
charged with Capital Offences for which
they ought in the regular course to have been
McCluskey " acting in the presence of and
under the coercion of her said Husband is by
brought to trial at a Court off] Oyer and
Law absolved from all guilt and Criminality
Terminer and Gaol delivery on the second
in that Respect."
Tuesday in this Month which could not be
held by reason of the present convulsions
and for want of a Commission from the late
The proceedings of the " County Court of Lou doun in the examination of the said Manasses
McGahey" charged with murder made " no
mention of any Evidence deposed against him."
executive power And whereas no method is
yet adopted for the trial of Criminals and
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
6
it might be thought inconsistent with the
liberty which we are endeavouring to secure
in the most permanent manner to keep men
charged with Criminal Offences in long
confinement without bringing them to their
Trials the convention think it best to grant
a pardon to the said Criminals respectively
hoping that this lenity together with the
imprisonment they have undergone will
produce a sincere contrition and reformation
of their manners and that they may hereafter
prove useful Members of Society.]
Ultimately, the cases of Habakuk Pride, Mary
Howell, and other accused felons required legislative action after the new government got
under way in the fall of 1776. The General Assembly convened in Williamsburg on October 7,
1776, for its first meeting under the June 29,
1776, constitution of the independent state/
commonwealth of Virginia. On November 4,
then and there to hold a court of Oyer and
the House of Delegates received
Terminer, for the trial of the criminals in
a petition of sundry prisoners confined in
the publick jail, setting forth, that several
of them, who have wives and families,
have been for a long time imprisoned, and
finding no method has been yet adopted for
their trial, are under great apprehensions
of suffering for want of necessary clothes
during the inclemency of the approaching
season, and praying such relief as this
House shall judge reasonable.
the publick jail; and the said commissioners
of Oyer and Terminer, having taken the
following oath, to wit, I A. B. do solemnly
promise and swear that I will be faithful
and true to the commonwealth of Virginia,
and that I will well and truly execute
the office of commissioner of Oyer and
Terminer, to which I have been appointed
by the general assembly, without favour,
affection, or partiality. So help you God.
The House gave the jailer [ Peter Pelham]
leave to buy food and clothes at public expense
until means could be found for disposing of the
To be administered to the commissioner
prisoners' cases. To that end, the House passed a
bill after three readings, and then it went to the
and there proceed to the trial of all the said
first name[d] and present by any of the
others, and by him to the others, shall then
criminals, in like manner as is directed for
Senate, where it was approved without amend-
courts of Oyer and Terminer, in and by an
ment in November 1776:
act intituled An act directing the method of
trial of criminals for capital offences, and
An Act for appointing commissioners of
Oyer and Terminer for the trial of Crimi-
for to her purposes therein mentioned, and
nals now in the publick jail.
may adjourn from day to day until all the
WHEREAS, by the dissolution of the
government exercised by the king of Great
Britain, courts of oyer and terminer can-
said criminals are tried. And the Sheriff of
York county shall summon grand and petit
juries for such trials, and attend the said
not now be held for the trial of criminals
commissioners according to the directions
committed to the publick jail, and their
of the said act; and against such criminals
being sundry persons confined in the said
jail on suspicion of felony, it is necessary
that some temporary mode should be directed for bringing them to a speedy trial:
as shall be found guilty, by verdict of the
petit jury, the said commissioners shall
proceed to judgment according to law, and
award execution thereupon, saving to the
Be it therefore enacted by the General As-
governour his right of granting pardons to
sembly of the commonwealth of Virginia,
all capital offenders, according to the con-
That five commissioners, to be chosen by
stitution of government.
joint ballot of both houses of assembly, or
And be it farther enacted That the clerk
Capitol, in the city of Williamsburg, on
of the secretary's office shall immediately
issue writs of venire facias for the summoning a venire from the county, in the
the third Thursday inJanuary next ( 1777],
case of each criminal who, according to the
any three of them be, and they are hereby
empowered and required to meet at the
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
said act, hath aright to be tried by a jury of
7
and those he or she may desire to be summoned in his or her behalf, to attend at the
Peggy Shreeves, from Accomack, for grand
larceny: Acquitted.
William Wallace, from Berkeley, for murder:
Guilty. Death.
Jeremiah Thomas, from Berkeley, for murder.
time foresaid.
Acquitted.
the vicinage, and shall also issue summons
for the witnesses against each criminal,
This statute specifies that five commission-
ers be chosen by " joint ballot of both houses of
assembly." On Tuesday, December 17, 1776, the
Thomas Morgan, from Berkeley, for murder:
Acquitted.
John Cassedy, from Berkeley, for murder:
House of Delegates nominated five persons for
the five positions. The Senate was satisfied with
Acquitted.
those nominations and was willing for the five
glary: Acquitted.
to be appointed without taking a vote. They
Benjamin Hope, from Williamsburg, for
horsestealing: Acquitted.
John Smith, from Augusta, for larceny: Ac-
were all members of the Privy Council (Council
of State):
John Page
Dudley Digges
Richard Thompson, from Berkeley, for bur-
quitted.
Margaret Masters, from Augusta, for larceny:
John Blair
Acquitted.
Bartholomew Dandridge
Thomas Walker2
Thomas Clark, from Westmoreland, for lar-
The Virginia Gazette reported that on Thurs-
Jabez Deaton, from Chesterfield, for murder:
ceny: Acquitted.
day and Friday [ January 16 and 17, 1777J, the
Acquitted.
criminals were brought before the " commissioners of Oyer and Terminer at the Capitol
Acquitted.
to take their trials." Sentencing took place on
Saturday:
Zachariah Jones, from Albemarle, for manslaughter: guilty. Burnt in the hand.
John Emmet, from Berkeley, for bestiality:
Dudley Brown, from Dinwiddie, for deceit:
Thomas Green, from Mecklenburg, for murder: guilty. Death.
Benjamin Branson, from Williamsburg, for
forgery: guilty. Death
James Parker, from Williamsburg, for deceit:
acquitted.
Acquitted.
Mary Howell from Berkeley, for child murder:
Hugh Cassedy, from Elizabeth City, for lar-
guilty. Death.
Charles Tompkins, from Hanover, for theft:
guilty. Burnt in the hand.
ceny: Burnt in the hand.
Michael Newman, from Henrico, for manslaughter: Acquitted.
Charles Beeler, from Frederick, for passing
James Sorrel, from Westmoreland, for sheep -
counterfeit money: acquitted.
stealing: Acquitted.
George Gray, from Brunswick, for horse -
John Sharp, from Henrico, for manslaughter:
stealing. Guilty. Death.
Acquitted. 4
William Jones, from Hampshire, for horse -
stealing: Guilty. Death.
John Mecum, from Southampton for murder:
Guilty. Death.
William and Charles Gunter, from Hanover,
for horsestealing: Acquitted?
1 The preceding information is found in Brent
Tartar, Revolutionary Virginia: The Road to Independence, vol. 7 ( Part Two), pp. 431, 451, 458.
2 William Waller Hening, Statutes at Large 9: 172173. The Oyer and Terminer law appears under the
The Oyer and Terminer court met again on
April 8, 9, and 10, 1777, at the Capitol for the
date October 1776 in Hening, but the Journal of the
trials of the following criminals who received
December 1776 shows that it did not become law
sentence accordingly:
until November; Journal of the House of Delegates
for the session 7 October 1776 -20 December 1776
Habakkuk Pride, from Princess Anne, for
manslaughter: Burnt in the hand.
Allen Ridley Young, from Pittsylvania, for
burglary: Acquitted.
David Chapel, from Princess Anne, for manslaughter: Burnt in the hand.
Sarah Martin, from Princess Anne, for manslaughter: Acquitted.
House of Delegates for the session 7 October 1776 -20
Williamsburg, Va.: Alexander Purdie, 1776). Spe-
cial Collections, John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library, The
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
3 Virginia Gazette ( Purdie), January 24, 1777, p. 2,
col. 3.
4 Ibid., April 18, 1777, supp., p. 1, col. 1 - 2.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
8
As the Dust Settles:
An Update on the Archaeological Excavations
at the James Wray Site
by Mark Kostro and Andrew Edwards
Mark is a project archaeologist and
Andy is a staff archaeologist in the Department of Archaeological Research.
Figure]
In the late summer and early fall of 2007,
Historical Background
Colonial Williamsburg's archaeologists were
In the seventeenth century, the parcel of
back on Block 31 exploring a portion of the
Wray site, this time prompted by SunTrust's plan
to construct a new bank on the comer of Prince
land that was eventually designated as Block 31
was originally part of Middle Plantation, a small
community founded in 1633 along a wooden
George and North Henry streets ( Figure 1).
palisade erected between College Creek and
Because Block 31 is located within the City of
Queen's Creek. Block 31 was part of a sixty-
Williamsburg's archaeological preservation dis-
eight -acre grant given to John White in 1674.
He sold it that same year to John Page, and it
trict, a full scale archaeological effort was carried
out to document and excavate any and all threatened archaeological resources within the project
boundaries prior to the start of demolition, con-
struction, or landscaping. Funded by SunTrust,
the three month excavation revealed a surpris-
ing number of well preserved features relating
not only to eighteenth- century Williamsburg,
but also to the seventeenth -century commu-
nity of Middle Plantation that preceded Wil-
liamsburg's founding in 1699. These discoveries
complement our previous investigations of the
Menetree/ Wray building trades complex, excavated in 2002 before construction of the Prince
George Street parking garage. A summary of
that work, authored by archaeologist Jameson
Harwood and historians Julie Richter and Tom
Goyens, previously appeared in the Winter 2003
edition of the Interpreter ( pp. 1 - 13).
Figure 2
remained in the Page family until taken over by
the trustees of Williamsburg in 1699. The trustees sold the land to Thomas Jones in 1719, but
Jones failed to build on the lots within the two
years required by city ordinance, so it reverted
back to the trustees in 1721. Henry Clay Jr.
Menet
lod Feature
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer / all 2008
F
9
bought the property in 1722 and subsequently
sold it to David Menetree, who operated a brick -
making business on the lot (Figure 2).
In 2002, archaeological evidence of Men -
etree's brickyard was discovered, including a
brick - rying shed and a large borrow pit from
d
which he dug clay to make bricks. He probably
had a pug mill for mixing the clay and, of course,
a kiln or stove to fire the bricks, but no evidence
of either was found. The discovery of a huge
quantity of discarded bricks and kiln fragments
from the borrow pit fill suggests, however, that
Menetree's brick kiln was probably close by.
In 1736, Menetree sold the property to
joiner and carpenter James Wray, who estab-
lished a large -scale building -rades company on
t
the property. Wray was essentially what we call
today a general contractor, overseeing a work-
force consisting of some thirty persons, a small
number of them journeymen, while the majority
were enslaved African Americans. Documentary
sources indicate a diverse range of endeavors that
Wray and his workers were involved in, including shingle making, timber cutting, coffin making, shoemaking, window glazing, painting, and
manufacturing of window leads Archaeological
evidence of his operation, excavated in 2002,
included a saw pit, a sawing house, a workshop,
an enormous wood - rying house or stable, and
d
an open work shelter ( Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 5
The building boom in the second quarter of
the eighteenth century helped the Wray household become one of the largest in Williamsburg
Figure 5).
Upon Wray's death i} late 1749, only the
royal govemor had a Larger household. Mary
Wray, James's wife, oversaw the company after
her husband's death until its management was as-
sumed in 1768 by their son James Jr., following his
twenty-first birthday. The younger Wray held on
to the property until 1796, when he and his wife
conveyed the lots to Joseph Prentis, whose execu-
tors conveyed the property to Henry Skipwith in
1812. For the rest of the nineteenth century, the
property remained vacant as it fell under the ownership of absentee title holders. At the turn of the
twentieth century, the property was divided into
multiple residential lots, upon which several large
wood -frame homes were constructed as part of
Figure 3
Williamsburg's Peacock Hill neighborhood. Many
of these original homes are still standing.
Archaeology of the SunTrust Lot •
The first archaeology of the SunTrust property took place during the early months of 1969
when Ivor Noel Hume, then director of archae-
ology for Colonial Williamsburg, undertook an
accelerated archaeological study" prior to the
construction of the United Virginia Bank drive 0
6= Bam Structure
5-- Garden Features
SmallPost
7
Figure 4
B = BRkPatway
10 = Drain
9 feneelines
50m,
Figure 6
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
10
SunTrust Bank Site
Previous Archaeological Findings
Area to be Excavated l\
Prior to Construction —
1
Figure 7
thru. The brief project identified intact archaeo-
logical features associated with the domestic
occupation of the Wray family from the 1730s to
the end of the eighteenth century including four
building foundations, several drain features, and
a large quantity of artifacts ( Figures 6 and 7).
Prime George Street
Figure 9
A small number of the features were ex-
cavated upon their discovery. Most, however,
were covered by a protective layer of dense sand
before the construction of the bank and paving
of the adjacent parking lot ( Figure 8).
fl Arc geological Peatures un: overedjin 1969
Figure 8
Figure 10
Subsequently, a well was discovered but not
excavated during construction. In May 2003,
statrelsrar
small portions of two of the eighteenth- century
lto =
foundations uncovered in the 1969 excavations
C!
were again excavated and recorded before the
utilities servicing the parking garage were in-
fit.. - ,'
stalled ( Figure 9).
a.
s
In addition, artifacts recovered during the
a
1969 excavations were reanalyzed in conjunc-
tion with those recently recovered during the
parking garage project (Figure 10). The artifacts
consisted mostly of domestic material associated
with the Wray operation and possibly the home
of James Wray Jr. ( Figure 11).
ha
d=
Figure 11
e
ll ;
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
11
between the main structural posts. The two
buildings were superimposed upon one another,
indicating that one building was a replace-
ment for the other rather than the two being,
contemporary structures. Most important, the
buildings are two of a mere handful of structures
known from Middle Plantation, which officially
disappeared with the 1699 founding of Virginia's
second colonial capital ( Figure 13).
The buildings were most likely tobacco
houses — specialized barns designed to dry and
cure tobacco before packaging it for transport
Figure 12
across the Atlantic. The buildings were oriented
In August 2007, the Department of Archaeological Research began the current phase of
southeast to northwest, conforming to the natu-
archaeological research. Fieldwork began with
edge of a natural ravine adjacent to
ral contours of the landscape, hugging the top
the site.
the complete removal of the asphalt parking lot
Interestingly, their orientation approximately
adjacent to the existing drive -thru bank and any
recent soil layers below the paving (Figure 12).
The work was carried out by backhoe, closely
matches that of a brick hearth found a short
distance to the west by Noel Hume in 1969.
supervised by Foundation archaeologists to en-
The brick hearth and tobacco houses were too
far apart to have been part of the same structure,
sure minimal impact to the buried resources.
but it is possible they were all part of the house
Once the backhoe removed the overburden, the
remainder of the fieldwork was carried out by our
archaeological field crew with shovels, picks, and
trowels. All features were mapped, described,
and photographed. Artifacts and soil samples
were recovered from all layers and features and
lot of a small seventeenth- century tobacco farm.
The tobacco houses' southeast -to- northwest
orientation provides a marked contrast to the
strict east west /north south rectilinear grid ad-
opted by Gov. Francis Nicholson when he laid
out Williamsburg's streets and building lots
transferred to the Department of Archaeological
in 1699. While Middle Plantation developed
Research laboratories, where they are currently
organically in conformity with the existing
landscape, Williamsburg's plan gave little or no
undergoing analysis.
As already mentioned, the results of the
consideration to the terrain or the surrounding
investigation included a wealth of new informa-
environment. As a result, many of Williamsburg's
tion regarding eighteenth- century Williamsburg
earliest landowners had to overcome uneven to-
as well as the layout of the seventeenth- century
pography and poor drainage, among other prob-
community of Middle Plantation. Among these
finds were two thirty- by twenty-foot post -in-
lems, in the development of their lots.
ground structures framed on large wooden posts
referring to the nature of the work done to level
set directly into the ground at ten -foot intervals
and drain early Williamsburg, clues include a
network of drains that have
been found buried beneath
SunTrust Bank Site
2007 Archaeological Findings
2503
Eca,slart
While there is little documentary evidence
all parts of the colonial capi-
tal. At the SunTrust site, the
earliest drain was a water
diversion ditch carved di-
I
rectly into the clay subsoil.
Over time, the drain became
silted -in
and
it
was
replaced by two brick drains.
One was a surface or gutter
drain, sometimes known as
a " French drain," for carrying storm water away from
the back of a large brick
Prime Giarges ru
residence that fronted onto
Prince George Street. The
Figure 13
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
12
second was a subterranean brick tunnel drain
that drew groundwater from James Wray's saw
house. This drain, originally positioned where
the city parking garage now stands, was exca-
the building's southeastern comer, and a second
post was found eight feet to its south.
For the most part, the property was little
used during the nineteenth century. Meanwhile,
within this part of Williamsburg were prone to
twentieth- century features included a square
cellar with brick and cement walls filled with
flooding and the efforts that individual property
owners in the eighteenth century put forth to
iron water tank for an early commode. The cel-
vated in 2002. The drains attest to how city lots
make their lots suitable for building.
The precise age of the three drains is still
under investigation, although they undoubtedly
date either to David Menetree's or the Wray
family's occupation of the property. The bricks
used in the construction of the drains likely
came from Menetree' s kiln, either as new bricks
demolition debris dating to the 1960s and a cast -
lar was part of an early -twentieth -century home
that was part of Williamsburg's Peacock Hill
neighborhood. To the north of the cellar was a
small outbuilding consisting of a single course of
brick divided into two small rooms. Finally, at
the northeastern comer of the site, the curved
brick foundation for the bay window of another
or as seconds salvaged from the extensive waster
Peacock Hill house facing onto North Henry
piles discarded into his borrow pit. Appropriate
Street was found intact.
chemical testing of samples from both can eventually document this relationship firmly.
Another early landscape feature found dur-
ing the excavations was a fence line extending
east -west across the south end of the project
area. The posthole fills included an assortment
of eighteenth century ceramic and glass artifacts,
indicating that the ground surface across the site
was somewhat littered with debris by the time the
fence was erected. The fence was probably part of
an enclosure for the space where household ac-
tivities such as butchering, cooking, and laundering took place. Evidence of each of these activities
was also found in two shallow trash features near
the southeastern comer of the site. Artifacts found
in them included ceramics, wine bottle glass, and
animal bones along with other objects dating to
In summary, the archaeological investigations
at the SunTrust site included evidence beginning
with the early expansion attempts of the Virginia
colony beyond Jamestown Island to the present
day. The finds have provided significant insights
into the nature of the area's occupation during the
seventeenth century and how that contrasted with
its development in the eighteenth. In addition, all
the way through the duration of the fieldwork,
Foundation archaeologists and College of William and Mary students provided explanations of
the archaeological work and impromptu site tours
for guests, area shoppers, and bank customers to
give the Williamsburg community a better understanding of the nature of Colonial Williamsburg's
archaeological research. Now that the fieldwork
at the site is complete and the construction of the
the mid eighteenth century ( Figure 14).
new SunTrust bank has commenced, laboratory
An equally important discovery at the northeastern comer of the site was the ruins of a late -
finds from the 2007 excavations. A detailed report
eighteenth-century building. This structure, dated
to approximately 1782, is depicted as a large
outbuilding or quarter on the so- called Frenchman's Map of Williamsburg. In this case, none
of the bricks that made up
the building's foundation was
found intact. Instead, the archaeological
evidence
con-
sisted of a brick and mortar
rubble -filled robber's trench
that followed thefoundation's
former location — type of
a
feature created when founda-
tion bricks are salvaged for
reuse in another location.
Evidence of a fence line, also
pictured on the Frenchman's
Map, was similarly located.
The end post was found at
Figure 14
technicians and faunal experts will analyze the
is in preparation to be submitted to the city.
Stay tuned to http: / research.history.org/
/
Archaeological_Research.cfm for the " freshest
advices" from your Archaeology Department.
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
13
Cg© OU9O COR
R
byby LauraLaura ArnoldArnold
Unger,Unger, RichardRichard W.W. BeerBeer inin thethe MiddleMiddle AgesAges andand
thethe Renaissance.Renaissance. Philadelphia:Philadelphia: UniversityUniversity
LauraLaura isis aa volunteervolunteer forfor thisthis publication.publication.
ofof PennsylvaniaPennsylvania Press,Press, 2004.2004. AA detaileddetailed
ColonialColonial Williamsburg'Williamsburg' ss FoodwaysFoodways programprogram
isis alwaysalways popularpopular withwith guests,guests, especial yespecial y onon hothot
summersummer daysdays whenwhen theythey looklook onon inin amazementamazement
historyhistory thatthat revealsreveals whywhy today'today' ss beerbeer sharesshares
onlyonly itsits namename withwith thethe beveragebeverage brewed brewed
andand consumedconsumed duringduring thethe MiddleMiddle AgesAges andand
thethe Renaissance.Renaissance.
asas foodfood isis preparedprepared overover openopen fires.fires. AtAt thethe Gover-Gover-
nor'nor' ss PalacePalace Kitchen,Kitchen, theythey seesee today'today' ss equivalentequivalent
ofof aa finefine restaurantrestaurant kitchen,kitchen, wherewhere freshfresh ingredi-ingredients,ents, thethe bestbest cutscuts ofof meat,meat, andand delicate delicate pastriespastries
andand dessertsdesserts areare prepared.prepared. TheThe PeytonPeyton RandolphRandolph
KitchenKitchen showsshows guestsguests howhow mealsmeals werewere prepared,prepared,
notnot onlyonly forfor thethe wealthywealthy Randolph Randolph familyfamily butbut
alsoalso forfor theirtheir slaves,slaves, whowho livedlived onon simplersimpler fare.fare.
TheThe FoodwaysFoodways staffstaff isis constantlyconstantly challenged challenged toto
interpretinterpret eighteenth-eighteenth- centurycentury cookingcooking accurately accurately
andand toto representrepresent howhow itit waswas consumedconsumed byby allall
levelslevels ofof society.society. TheyThey relyrely onon thethe resourcesresources ofof
thethe JohnJohn D.D. Rockefeller Rockefeller Jr.Jr. LibraryLibrary toto helphelp themthem
inin theirtheir research.research. TheThe following following bibliographybibliography ofof
recentrecent acquisitionsacquisitions isis aa windowwindow intointo thethe wealthwealth
ofof informationinformation available.
available.
DessertsDesserts andand SweetsSweets
Mason,Mason, Laura.Laura. SugarSugar - PlumsPlums andand Sherbet:Sherbet: TheThe
-
PrehistoryPrehistory ofof Sweets.Sweets. Totnes,Totnes, Eng.: ProspectProspect
Eng.:
Books,Books,
2004.2004.
HistoryHistory andand recipesrecipes areare
combined combined inin aa studystudy ofof methodsmethods usedused toto
produceproduce thethe sweetmeatssweetmeats thatthat havehave beenbeen partpart
ofof ourour dietsdiets sincesince thethe latelate MiddleMiddle Ages.Ages.
Powell,Powell, Marilyn.Marilyn. IceIce Cream:Cream: TheThe DeliciousDelicious History.History.
Woodstock,Woodstock, Vt.: TheThe OverlookOverlook Press,Press, 2006.2006.
Vt.:
ThisThis deliciousdelicious storystory ofof iceice creamcream isis aa collectioncollection
ofof myths,myths, facts,facts, anecdotes,anecdotes, andand recipesrecipes thatthat
tracestraces thethe consumption consumption ofof iceice creamcream fromfrom
ancient ancient ChinaChina toto thethe presentpresent day.day.
Scully,Scully, Terence.Terence. LaVarenne'LaVarenne' ss Cookery:Cookery: TheThe FrenchFrench
Cook;Cook; TheThe FrenchFrench PastryPastry Chef;Chef; TheThe FrenchFrench
Confectioner.Confectioner. Totnes,Totnes, Eng.: ProspectProspect Books,Books,
Eng.:
BeveragesBeverages
2006.2006. ThisThis modemmodem EnglishEnglish translationtranslation ofof
Brown,Brown, PeterPeter B.B. InIn PraisePraise ofof HotHot Liquors:Liquors: TheThe
StudyStudy ofof Chocolate,Chocolate, CoffeeCoffee andand Tea-Tea- Drinking,Drinking,
thethe firstfirst substantialsubstantial bookbook ofof FrenchFrench cookery,cookery,
publishedpublished between between 16511651 andand 1660,1660, bringsbrings
16001600 - 1850.1850. York:York: YorkYork CivicCivic Trust,Trust, 1995.1995.
-
seventeenth seventeenth - centurycentury
-
ThisThis catalogcatalog ofof anan exhibitionexhibition atat FairfaxFairfax
House,House, York,York, inin 19951995 discussesdiscusses thethe historyhistory
cooking cooking intointo thethe repertoirerepertoire ofof today'today' ss chefs.chefs.
ofof thesethese formerlyformerly exoticexotic beverages beverages asas wellwell
asas earlyearly recipesrecipes andand thethe developmentdevelopment ofof
equipage equipage toto prepareprepare andand serveserve them.
them.
NationalNational TrustTrust EnterprisesEnterprises Ltd.,
Ltd.,
2001.2001.
TheThe historyhistory ofof teatea drinking,drinking, tea,tea, andand teatea
wareswares fromfrom thethe seventeenthseventeenth centurycentury toto thethe
FrenchFrench
DessertDessert
Staib,Staib, Walter.Walter. CityCity TavernTavern BakingBaking &
&
Cookbook:Cookbook: 200200 YearsYears ofof SweetSweet RecipesRecipes
fromfrom America'America' ss FirstFirst GourmetGourmet Restaurant.Restaurant.
Philadelphia:Philadelphia:
Pettigrew,Pettigrew, Jane.Jane. AA SocialSocial HistoryHistory ofof Tea.Tea. London:London:
classicalclassical
Publishers,Publishers,
RunningRunning
2003.2003.
ThisThis
PressPress
sequelsequel
BookBook
toto
thethe
originaloriginal CityCity TavernTavern CookbookCookbook focusesfocuses onon
bakedbaked goodsgoods andand confectionsconfections enjoyedenjoyed inin
thethe eighteentheighteenth century.century.
twentieth.
twentieth.
Renfrow,Renfrow, Cindy.Cindy. AA SipSip ThroughThrough Time:Time: AA CollectionCollection
ofof OldOld BrewingBrewing Recipes.Recipes. [ Pottstown,Pottstown,
[
Penn.Penn. fl:fl: C.C. Renfrow,Renfrow, 1994.1994. MoreMore thanthan 400400
documenteddocumented periodperiod recipesrecipes forfor beveragesbeverages toto
suitsuit everyevery taste.taste.
Standage,Standage, Tom.Tom. AA HistoryHistory ofof thethe WorldWorld inin 66 Glasses.Glasses.
NewNew York:York: WalkerWalker & Co., 2005.2005. AA historyhistory ofof
&
Co.,
beveragesbeverages inin general,general, withwith specificspecific sectionssections
onon alcohol,alcohol, tea,tea, coffee,coffee, andand colacola drinks.drinks.
EnglishEnglish HeritageHeritage Publications Publications
Brears,Brears, PeterPeter C.C. D.D. StuartStuart Cookery:Cookery: RecipesRecipes &
&
History.History. London:London: EnglishEnglish Heritage,Heritage, 2004.2004.
RecipesRecipes forfor seventeenth-seventeenth- centurycentury cookingcooking
includeinclude
additionaladditional
informationinformation
aboutabout
cookingcooking equipment,equipment, kitchenkitchen design,design, andand
thethe servingserving ofof meals.
meals.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
14
Renfrew, Jane. Prehistoric Cookery: Recipes &
History. London: English Heritage, 2005.
Strong, Roy C. Feast: A History of Grand
Eating. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2002. From
A look back at the evolution of cooking
traditions based on the use of fire, the
sources of food, and its availability.
Stead, Jennifer. Georgian Cookery: Recipes &
Babylonian feasts of the ninth century b.c.
to those of the early twentieth century,
Strong chronicles the social phenomena
that resulted from grand feasts to mark
History. Swindon, Eng.: English Heritage,
celebratory
2003. The birth of a consumer society, with
centuries.
occasions
throughout
the
an array of new cooking equipment and
Winter, J. M. van ( Johanna Maria). Spices and
tableware, changed the ways food and drink
Comfits: Collected Papers on Medieval Food.
were prepared, served, and consumed.
Totnes, Eng.: Prospect Books, 2007. This
book is a historical review of the foodways
Facsimile Editions of Seventeenth- and
of the Netherlands and their influences on
Eighteenth- Century Cookbooks
their European neighbors. It contains recipes
Ayres, Ralph. Ralph Ayres' Cookery Book. Oxford:
Bodleian Library, 2006. This cookbook was
written by the head cook at New College,
Oxford, in the early eighteenth century.The
recipes are reproduced in his handwriting,
accompanied by contemporary botanical
illustrations that make this book a small
gem for collectors of facsimile editions.
Cleland, Elizabeth. A New and Easy Method of
Cookery. Tomes, Eng.: Prospect Books, 2005.
First published in 1755 and written by a
cook and teacher of cookery in Edinburgh,
this cookbook gives the Scottish perspective
to eighteenth - entury English foodways.
c
Rabisha, William. The Whole Body of Cookery
Dissected. Tomes, Eng.: Prospect Books,
and references to medieval cookbooks.
Foodways of Great Britain
Colquhoun, Kate. Taste: The Story of Britain
Through Its Cooking. New York: Bloomsbury
USA, 2007. British cooking from Roman
times to the present day, with illustrations
that augment a descriptive and entertaining
text.
Lehmann, Gilly. British Housewife: Cookery
Books, Cooking and Society in Eighteenth-
Century Britain. Totnes, Eng.: Prospect
Books, 2003. The first major study that
looks at cookbooks, their recipes, their
authors, and those who purchased the books
in Georgian England.
2003. This facsimile of the 1682 edition,
Mason, Laura, and Catherine Brown. Traditional
published twenty years after the first edition,
Foods of Britain: A Regional Inventory.
Totnes, Eng.: Prospect Books, 2004. Four
is a testimony to Rabisha's influence in
introducing French, Dutch, and Italian
foodways to English cuisine.
Thacker, John. The Art of Cookery. Lewes, Eng.:
Southover Press, 2004. Thacker was cook to
the dean and chapter of Durham Cathedral,
hundred regional British foods are featured
in this collection that brings together the
food heritages of England, Scotland, and
Wales.
The Taste of Britain. London: Harper
and his book, published in 1758, reflects the
Press, 2006. First published in 1999 as
generous hospitality of an English religious
Traditional Foods of Britain, this later
community.
edition is enriched with a preface by the
authors and a foreword by Hugh Feamely-
Foodways of Europe and the Middle East
Whittingstall.
Brown, Peter B. Pleasures of the Table: Ritual
and Display in the European Dining Room,
Macdonald, Janet. Feeding Nelson's Navy: The
1600 -1900. York, Eng.: York Civic Trust,
Era. London: Chatham Publishing, 2004.
A fascinating history of the logistics of
1997. This is a catalog of a 1997 exhibition
at Fairfax House, York, which featured
glass, ceramics, and silver used by the very
wealthy to impress their guests.
Dalby, Andrew. Flavors of Byzantium. Tomes,
Eng.: Prospect Books, 2003. A history of
the culinary traditions from ancient Greece
Byzantium), where the use of spices, seafood,
and local produce tantalized Crusaders as
they made their journey to the Holy Land.
True Story of Food at Sea in the Georgian
feeding and maintaining the health of the
men whose hard physical work guaranteed
the success of the British navy.
Olsen, Kirstin. Cooking with Jane Austen.
Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2005.
A collection of more than 200 modernized
recipes extracted from references inAusten's
novels and cookbooks of the period.
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer / all 2008
F
15
Tames, Richard. Feeding London: A Taste of
London:
Historical
History.
Publications Ltd., 2003. Britain's
on Hampton plantation.
Lucas, Fiona. Hearth and Home: Women
richest city and largest port
sets the scene for a history
of
twenty
centuries
young woman who began her married life
and the Art of Open -Hearth Cooking.
Toronto: James Lorimer & Company
Ltd., 2006. A social history with
of
conspicuous consumption,"
emphasis on the roles and skills of
from the very wealthy to the
women who cooked over open fires
in homes and taverns.
National Council of Negro
very poor and every social
level in between.
White, Eileen. The English Kitchen.
Totnes, Eng.: Prospect Books,
2007. A collection of essays from the
Eighteenth Leeds Symposium on Food
History in March 2003, discusses the origin
of many of the traditional foods that are
considered uniquely English.
Willes, Margaret. Household Management.
London: National Trust Enterprises Ltd.,
1996. Useful information about the functions
of kitchens and dairies within the larger
picture of the complex management of large
country houses.
Women. The Historical Cookbook of
the American Negro. Boston: Beacon
Press, 2000. A collection of 132 recipes, which
also includes historical facts, rare illustrations,
and personal anecdotes.
Oliver, Sandra L. Food in Colonial and Federal
America. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Press, 2005. European immigrants joined
Native Americans and African slaves in
developing regional food habits based on
the food they brought with them and what
they found here. Each volume of the Food in
American History Series is written by a food
historian who is an expert on the period.
Foodways of North America
Sumner, Judith. American Household Botany:
Bower, Anne L. African American Foodways:
Explorations ofHistory andCulture. Urbanna:
University of Illinois Press, 2007. This
A History of Useful Plants, 1620 - 1900.
Portland, Ore.: Timber Press, Inc., 2004.
Useful plants"
could
mean herbs for
collection of essays covering everything
cooking, food preservation, and medicines
from soul food to cookbooks reveal how
West African foods have been assimilated
as well as trees and vines used for buildings,
fumiture, barrels, and basket making. This is
into American foodways.
a comprehensive look at the adaptation skills
of European settlers in North America.
Curtin, Kathleen, Sandra L. Oliver, and
Plimoth Plantation. Giving Thanks. New
York: Clarkson Potter Publishers, 2005.
General History of Foodways
Subtitled " A delicious exploration of the
Civitello, Linda. Cuisine and Culture: A History
Thanksgiving Holiday," with a history of
Plimoth Plantation and more than eighty
Wiley &
recipes that define the traditional foods
and updated second
associated with America's holiday.
Fowler, Damon Lee. Dining at Monticello.
Chapel Hill: The University of North
Carolina Press, 2005. Essays by Monticello
historians are
combined with recipes
based on family manuscripts to provide
of Food and People. Hoboken, N.J.: John
Sons, Inc., 2008. This revised
edition expands the
narrative of interactions between history,
culture, and food from prehistory to today's
celebrity chefs.
Freedman, Paul. Food: The History of Taste.
Berkeley: University of Califomia Press,
2007. This collection of essays written by
an accurate description of the " good taste
European and American food historians
and abundance" found when dining with
presents a chronological history of taste
Thomas Jefferson.
Horry, Harriott Pinckney. A Colonial Plantation
Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott
Pinckney Horry, 1770. Columbia: University
from prehistory to the present day.
McLagan, Jennifer. Bones: Recipes, History and
Lore. New York: HarperCollins Publishers,
of South Carolina Press, 1984. Life in
2005. This book uses ancient history,
folklore, and literary quotes to trace the
eighteenth- century
South
cultural significance of "bones." More than
Carolina is recorded in the recipes and
lowcountry
a cookbook, one reviewer called it, "An ode
household responsibilities described by a
to meat "!
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
16
Bothy's Mould
Presenting the latest dirt (mould)
from the gardener' s hut (bothy).
Snails, Flies, and Caterpillars
Part I
m;i The Vegetable Garden
by Wesley Greene
investigations into spontaneous generation was
Wesley is a garden historian in the Landscape
in 1668. It was generally believed that maggots
Department. You can often find him in costume,
arose spontaneously in rotting meat, but Redi
postulated that they actually came from the eggs
laid by flies. To test his hypothesis, meat was set
interpreting in the Colonial Garden across the street
from Bruton Parish Church.
conducted by Italian physician Francesco Redi
out in a number of flasks, some open to the air,
We are often asked by visitors to the Colonial
some sealed completely, and others covered with
Garden, " How did the colonists control insect
pests in the garden ?"The answer ( which we will
gauze. The maggots appeared only in the open
get to later) is a surprise to most.
When man first gathered food plants into
a garden, he simultaneously created an ideal
habitat for the insects that feed on those plants,
the meat to lay their eggs.
initiating a battle between man and insect that
continues to this day. For most of our history, in-
ducted what he claimed to be the definitive
sects have had the upper hand. The first English
scope, it was readily apparent that boiling liq-
garden book, written by Thomas Hill in 1577,
There is none so dul of eye -sight ( as I
believe) who not thorowly perceiveth and
uids killed microorganisms. In his experiment,
he boiled chicken broth in a flask and allowed
it to cool. Within a few days, microorganisms
had formed a scum on the surface of the broth,
seeth, how that the Garden riches be
proving ( to Needham) the theory of spontane-
diversly annoyed, and harmed by divers
creeping worms and beasts, as wet above
ous generation.
recorded:
flasks, proving that flies had to be able to reach
The debate over spontaneous generation
continued through the eighteenth century. In
1745, English clergyman John Needham conexperiment. After the invention of the micro-
and worst, and unlesse speedy remedies
Lazzaro Spallanzani, an Italian priest, was not
convinced. In 1768, he proposed that microorganisms were introduced from the air. In his
experiment, he boiled meat broth in two flasks.
shall be exercised, that these in the end do
One was allowed to stand open, and the other
fail down and perish.)
was sealed. The open flask grew microorganisms;
the sealed flask did not. Doubters argued that
as under the earth, and that through the
same occasion, often procured to feeble
The remedy, of course, has been the problem.
Hill recommended many of the same techniques that had been practiced for more than
this only proved that spontaneous generation
could not occur without air.
a thousand years and continued well into the
In 1859, the French Academy of Sciences
nineteenth century. Plants were sprinkled with
solicited experiments to prove or disprove spon-
fig tree ashes, ox urine, olive oil, and chimney
taneous generation. A young French chemist
soot. Lixiviums ( solutions) of limewater, sul-
named Louis Pasteur created the experiment
fur, and asafetida were sprayed on the leaves.
that finally laid to rest the theory of spontane-
Bundles of garlic, brimstone, goat's hoof, and
hartshorn were burned between the rows to
ous generation. Like earlier experiments, his
ward off pests.
The origin of the insects that attacked the
involved boiling meat broth in a flask, but he
modified the container by heating the neck of
the flask and bending it into an S shape so that
sand years, insect and disease organisms were
air could enter but airbome spores could not.
The broth in the flask remained clear. In a de-
thought to arise through spontaneous genera-
finitive demonstration, he then tipped the broth
tion. According to Aristotle, plant lice ( aphids)
arose from the morning dew, and field mice were
created by dirty hay. One of the first scientific
had settled through gravity, and the broth rapidly
clouded over. This not only disproved spontane-
plants was a mystery. For more than two thou-
into the lowest part of the neck, where spores
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
17
ous generation but demonstrated the ubiquity of
microorganisms in the air around us.
The confusion over the origins of insects is
apparent in many eighteenth- century garden
works. In 1704, Leonard Meager recorded
Caterpillars of which there are several
sons, but those are the worst enemies to
Trees and Fruit which are bred by the East
Wind. To counter this evil: some affirm
with much confidence, that the oft smoak-
ing of them with old Hay, or Straw, using
the advantage of the Wind in the Spring,
to be a sure prevention. 2
More than sixty years later, Philip Miller also
blamed the wind:
Some have supposed, that blights are usu-
Council of Colonial Virginia
Aprill25, 1701
Whereas it has pleased almighty God of his
Infinite mercy to deliver this Colony from the
late great & rageing Plague. ofCaterpillars with
wth wch it was Infested in art humble Sence
thereof, it is ordered & appointed that the 5th
day of June next be observed and Kept ( by all
the Inhabitants of the City of Williamsburgh
Parts adjacent) as a day of thanksgiving for
such signall mercies & the 19th day of the same
month in.all other Parts ofthis Country & that
a Proclamation be drawn & Issue>to Enjoyn
the due observation thereof.
H. R. Mcllwaine, ed., Executive Journals,
Council of Colonial Virginia (Richmond,
ally produced by an easterly wind, which
brings vast quantities of insects eggs along
with it from some distant place; which,
Va.: Virginia State Library, 1927) 2 :138 - 139.
being lodged upon the surface of the leaves
and flowers of fruit- trees, cause them to
shrivel up and perish. 3
Today, as then, members of the cabbage fam-
William Thompson suggests salt as a remedy.
When your cabbages and coleworts are infested
ily are afflicted with several particularly bother-
with
some insect pests. The green caterpillar of the
imported cabbage worm is familiar to anyone
sprinkle it over them; this method has been
caterpillars,
take
some
salt
water,
and
who has ever grown broccoli, cauliflower, col-
frequently found to be effectual. "6
The origin of the white butterfly that pro-
lards, or cabbage. Richard Bradley, writing in
duced the green caterpillar remained a mystery
1720, recognized the vast potential these insects
have to reproduce:
every Insect increases Yearly
about 400, and some of them
many more; for Example, those
Caterpillars which feed upon the
Cabbage, and change into the
common White Butter flies, breed
twice every Year, each of them
laying near 400 Eggs at one time;
so that from the second Brood
of one single Caterpillar we may
reasonably expect 160, 000. 4
Samuel Trowell was a great be-
liever in the virtues of manure in
controlling insect pests. In 1747, he
wrote of the cabbage worm:
when the Plant is grown large,
the white -wing'd Butterfly lays his
Eggs, which brings a Caterpillar at
the Bottom of the Leaf, and when
they come to be large, devours the
whole Plant....
Now to prevent
this Mischief, take some of the
Lixivium made of the Manure,
and water the plants with it, which
will destroy all the Caterpillars, be
thy ever so many, nor will they
come there any more. 5
throughout the eighteenth century. John Hill
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
18
the Tops of the Branches in his Hedges, and
there are Radishes upon the spot, the flies will
take to them, and never meddle with the Cau-
on many Trees that are about the place, he will
liflowers." 9 This would likely have some effect,
see Bags like Cobwebs: these are the Nest of
since the flea beetle seems to prefer radishes to
the Caterpillars that will the next Year eat his
Cabbages and other valuable Products; let him
cauliflower.
cut them off, and bum them." The web worm
also feed on tumips. Switzer wrote, " There is a
of which Hill wrote is not the source of cabbage
black fly that always fastens upon them, and eats
the seed -leaves in their first coming up in the
summer time, which spoils that crop entirely, if
not prevented." To ward off the fly, he recommended, " some have sap or seminated soot out
wrote for the month of November 1773: " On
worms. He further observed, " Chuse for this
Purpose, [ planting cabbage] an open Piece of
Ground, far from Trees or Hedges, for Caterpil-
lars breed among the Leaves of these; and the
Butterflies, that produce those Devourers, fre-
quent such Places more than open Ground." 7
Many authors recommended placing cab-
That same insect and a number of its relatives
of the chimney, wood -ashes, and the like strewn
over the young plants. "10 This method is still
employed by organic gardeners in England.
bages at a distance from trees or hedges. While
John Rutter and Daniel Carter suggested a
this would have no effect in controlling the cabbage caterpillar, it may actually be good advice
more elaborate method to combat the turnip
for another pest of cabbage: the cabbage flea
beetle. Because the flea beetle shelters in vegeta-
Boil a good quantity of tobacco stalks in water
till it is very strong of them; then stir into this
tion on the edges of gardens or fields, placing
plants away from hedges may have some benefit.
some aloes, soot, and flour of brimstone. Put
Research from Washington State University has
then draw off the liquor and sow them with the
shown that flea beetle damage on canola ( a
serious problem in the northern 4s
United States today) seldom occurs farther than fifty yards from the
edge of the field.
Modern
readers
teenth-century
of
garden
eighworks
experience some of the same confusion as the authors, who often read
and plagiarized each other: Just
about any insect that hops, flutters,
or flies is called a " fly." This can
fly: " Steep the seed in the following liquor:
in the seeds, and let them lie eighteen hours;
ingredients. "11
Trowell, ever the proponent
of manure, wrote: " Manure must
be of very great Service here, because
it will prevent the Fly's Mischief,
that is the chiefest Insect that
spoils Turnips; for altho' the
Rains may wash it, yet its Efficacy will
hold strong enough to prevent its
Hurt." 12
In
1747,
Trowell wrote
about another vexing problem: the
make accurate identification difficult and
fly on the broad or horse bean ( known to
result in the mistaken attribution of information
most Americans as the fava bean).
in eighteenth- century garden books.
Marty Farmers and Gardeners Bean -
Stephen Switzer was obviously speaking of
the flea beetle when he wrote conceming coleworts (similar to the modem collard). It "is often
Crops in the Spring- season of 1746,
where the Seed was sown or set too early
their Horse -beans in particular suffered much by the destructive Dolphin
apt to be eat up in the seedleaf as other cabbage
seeds are with the black fly." It is only in the
Fly, bred by the frequent Showers of
flea beetle. To prevent damage from the beetle,
Rain, and the hot Glades or the Sunbeams that interposed their scorching Rays
he suggested, " as soon as the seed is sown and
between their falling, and produced this
rak'd in, you should sow some slack'd lime, the
virtue of which will last till some rain succeeds,
after which the seed will soon sprout, and be out
horrid Insect, which no Manure, sowed
over the Ground, can prevent: but I will
seedling stage that cabbages are damaged by the
of danger."8 This very likely would provide some
here make known a Way to prevent this
These black
Collyer Fly's Damage ...
protection from the flea beetle.
Dolphin Flies always begin their Settle-
Miller recommended using radishes as a trap
ment on the top part of the Bean -stalk,
crop with cauliflower. " If there are not some
and there carry on their Increase till they
get down almost to its bottom, and live
Radishes amongst them, and the month of May
should prove hot and dry, as it sometimes happens, the fly will seize your Cauliflowers, and
eat their leaves full of holes, to their prejudice,
and sometimes their destruction; whereas, if
on the Sap of it, by which they poison
I am the first Author
and destroy it....
that discovered this Remedy, and this is,
when a Crop of Horse -beans is perceived
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
to be seized by this Dolphin Fly. Then let
a Man make use of a Scythe, and go in
among them, and mow their Tops off so
far as the Fly has settled... when all the
Tops are cut off, the Fly falls with them on
the Ground, and can never rise again. 13
19
does not produce aphids, but the damage from
aphid feeding is much more pronounced in
drought conditions, which likely explains the
phenomena that Worlidge observed.
Aphids are probably responsible for giving
the ant a bad name among eighteenth- century
In this case, the insect was actually an aphid.
gardeners. Ants are attracted to the honeydew
English gardeners still top beans to combat what
emitted by aphids and, like an army of farmers,
is now known as the black bean aphid.
milk" them to produce the honeydew and pro-
Whereas all of the above insects are fairly
tect them from predators. Ants do not damage
host- specific, slugs and snails are indiscriminate
plants themselves other than by aiding aphids,
feeders, as John Worlidge noted in 1716:
there cannot be a more pernicious Enemy
than Snails, which you may in a Dewy
Morning easily find where they most delight
to feed; but the surest way is in the hard
Winter to seek our their haunts, and make
a clean riddance of them: they lie much in
the holes of Walls, behind old Trees, under
Thorn, and other old and close Hedges. In
one Year I caused near two Bushels to be
gathered in a Nobleman Garden, which
but most eighteenth- century gardening works
present ideas for killing them. Benjamin Whit -
mill's 1748 suggestions include the following:
Some Persons recommend the cutting of Dew Worms in small Pieces, and strewing them for
Ants in proper Places which they do frequent;
to these they will resort in great Numbers for
Food, and may be easily destroy'd by the Help of
a Watering -Pot of scalding Water. "18
Hill and Cadell gave a novel use of ants in an
early example of natural pest control.
had in precedent Years destroyed the most
In Switzerland, however, they are trans-
of their Wall -Fruit, and ever after they had
great plenty of Fruit. 14
ported to trees for a different purpose; the
In 1779, Thompson explained the most
common method of gathering snails: " If you
destruction of caterpillars and other vermin. A bag filled with ants is fastened to a
tree, with a small hole purposely left open
place bricks, tiles, or boards, hollow against
for them to creep out; they spread along
your pales, and walls, the snails will creep under
the tree, and are prevented from leaving it,
by a quantity of pitch with which the stem
is covered. Rather than die by famine, they
go in pursuit of the caterpillars among the
them for shelter, and may then be taken." The
final" solution was known much earlier: "They
are easily taken with your Hand, if you look for
them Morning and Evening, especially after
Rain, for then they come out in the greatest
Abundance; they should be presently crush'd
under Foot." 15
The aphid, or plant louse, is nearly ubiquitous in gardens worldwide. Their success is due
leaves and devour them.
They also recognized the role of beneficial
insects. Concerning aphids, they observed:
The most effectual method of preventing
the depredations of plant lice upon flowers
All are parthenogenic, so the females do not
and leaves to plants, is suggested by those
insects which live by preying upon them.
The plant louse -lion, or aphidivorous fly,
require males to produce offspring; in some genera of aphids, males have never been found. In
either by instinct or foresight, deposits her
eggs in the midst of these animals; and
1792, Peter Hill and Thomas Cadell described
as soon as the larva: are produced, they
to their extraordinary reproductive proficiency.
the damage these pests inflict:
They are furnished with a small trunk,
which pierces the leaves, and enables the
animal to extract the juices proper for its
nourishment. Marty plants grow deformed
by the number of punctures thus made
upon their leaves. 1. 6
Worlidge noted, " By reason of great Drought,
many sorts of Trees and Plans are subject to Lice:
And seeing that they are caused by Heat and
devour hundreds around them. 19
They were likely referring to lady beetles.
Parasitic wasps are important predators of
many insect pests. Hill and Cadell were also
familiar with the most important family of these
wasps. " Ichneumon —one striking peculiarity in
the manners of some insects of this genus, who
make their way into the body of the caterpillars
of different kinds, and there deposite their eggs.
Drought, as is evident in the Sweetbryar and
The ova hatched within the caterpillar after
being quickened into life, preys upon the intes-
Gooseberry, that are only Lowsy in dry times,
tines of that animal. "20
or in very hot and dry places; therefore frequent
A control method widely practiced to this
day is a system of crop rotation. Meager wrote
washing them, by dashing Water on them, may
prove the best remedy. "17 Drought, of course,
in 1704:
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
20
Another thing I would have you take
notice of, and that is that you do no sow
one sort of Crop too often upon one and
the same piece of ground, but sow it with
2 Leonard Meager, The Compleat English Gardner: or, a
Sure Guide to Young Planters and Gardners ( London, 1704).
3 Philip Miller, The Gardeners Dictionary, 8th ed. ( London, 1768).
4 Richard Bradley, The Gentleman and Gardener's Kal-
changeable Crops, especially Parsnips and
Carrots, the which being sown too often
endar, Directing What Is Necessary to Be Done Every Month
without change, will be apt to canker, rot
1720); see also 4th ed. Dublin, 1720, with different sub-
ar be very apt to be Worm eaten, although
the ground be maintained very rich. 21
Now, to our original question: " How did the
colonists in Virginia deal with insect pests in
the vegetable garden ?" For the most part, they
did not have to because the majority of insects
that plagued their crops in England had not
yet arrived in America! The imported cabbage
worm was first introduced to Quebec and did
not find its way to Massachusetts until around
1869. The flea beetles that infested English cabbage and turnips did not arrive in America until
the twentieth century. Slugs and snails arrived
sometime in the nineteenth century, and, to
in the Kitchen -Garden, Fruit -Garden
3rd ed. ( London,
title.
5 Samuel Trowell and William Ellis, Farmer's Instructor;
or, The Husbandman and Gardener's Useful and Necessary
Companion ( London, 1747).
6 William Thompson, The New Gardener's Calendar
London, 1779).
7 John Hill, Eden: or, A Compleat Body of Gardening
London, 1773).
8 Stephen Switzer, The Practical Kitchen Gardiner: or, A
New and Entire System ofDirections for His Employment in the
Melonry, Kitchen- Garden, and Potagery, in the Several Seasons
of the Year ( London, 1727).
9 Miller, Gardeners Dictionary.
10 Switzer, Practical Kitchen Gardiner.
this day, I have never seen a black bean aphid
11 John Rutter and Daniel Carter, Modern Eden: or, the
on my broad beans. New World pests such as the
Gardener's Universal Guide: Containing Plain and Familiar
Instructions, for Performing Every Branch of Gardening ( Lon-
Colorado potato beetle and the Mexican bean
beetle never made it within a thousand miles of
Virginia in the eighteenth century.
There were a few garden pests waiting for
the colonists in North America, including the
cabbage looper and striped cabbage caterpillar,
which we occasionally see in gardens today.
The striped cucumber beetle is native to North
America, as is the squash vine borer. John Ran-
dolph, writing in Williamsburg in the eighteenth
century, warned us concerning raspberries: " They
are pestered with lice, but lime water kills them,
if sprinkled upon them." However, very few
insect problems were recorded in the vegetable
garden by our colonial predecessors.22
Beverley's 1705 observation that "A KitchinGarden don't thrive better or faster in any part
of the Universe, than there. They have all the
Culinary Plants that grow in England and in far
greater perfection "23 may have been due in part
to the fact that English vegetables arrived in
America before their English pests.
don, 1767).
12 Trowell and Ellis, Farmer's Instructor.
13 Ibid.
14 John Worlidge, A Compleat System of Husbandry and
Gardening; or, the Gentleman's Companion, in the Business
and Pleasures of a Country Life ( London, 1716).
15 Thompson, New Gardener's Calendar ;; Dezallier
d' Argenville, A[ntoine]- J[ oseph], The Theory and Practice
of Gardening: wherein is fully handled all that relates to fine
gardens, trans. John James ( London, 1712).
16 Peter Hill and Thomas Cadell, A New System of the
Natural History of Quadrupeds, Birds, Fishes, — and Insects
London, 1791- 1792).
17 Worlidge, Compleat System of Husbandry and Gardening.
18 Benjamin Whitmill, Kalendarium Universale: or, The
Gardiner' s Universal Kalendar, 4th ed. ( London, 1748).
19 Hill and Cadell, New System of Natural History.
20 Ibid.
21 Meager, Compleat English Gardner.
22 John Randolph, "A Treatise on Gardening" [ 1793], in
John Gardiner and David Hepburn, The American Gardener:
Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden
Every Month in the Year, 2nd ed. ( Washington, D.C., 1818).
1 Thomas Hill, The Gardeners Labyrinth: Containing a
Discourse of the Gardeners Life, ....
Gathered Out of the
Best Approved Writers of Gardening, Husbandrie, and Physicke
London, 1577).
23 Robert Beverley, History and Present State of Virginia
London, 1705).
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer / al12008
F
21
Though corrected on the historical facts, we
stand by our former admonition that "the use of
such terms of derision, even those that were in
common use at the time —like calling Catholics
papists' —is by no means acceptable, guest -
friendly practice for Colonial Williamsburg interpreters, who must be ever mindful of the
sensibilities of our increasingly diverse and international audiences." ( Bob Doares, with thanks
to Mark Hutter, Tailor)
Question: I've heard that a slave was once
freed by the Virginia General Assembly for
finding a cure for snakebite. Could you point
Q&
A
Frogs" Revisited
The spring 2007 Q& A column treated the delicate question of whether or not the eighteenth -
century British used the terms frog and froggy as
me to that piece of legislation? ( submitted by
Kat Warden, interpreter, Group Interpretation)
Answer: You may be referring to the freedom
granted to a New Kent County slave in 1729,
though the manumission occurred as a resolu-
tion of the govemor and council meeting in
executive ( administrative) session, not in its
pejorative references to French people. We based
legislative role as the upper house of the Gen-
our answer in the negative on the Oxford English
eral Assembly. Recall that manumission became
Dictionary' s ( OED's) assertion that the use offroggy
much more difficult in 1723, when the full leg-
also froggie) as a " term of contempt for a French-
man, from their reputed habit of eating frogs"
islature passed an " Act directing the trial of slaves,
committing capital crimes; and for the more effectual
cannot be documented before 1872. Au contraire,
punishing conspiracies and insurrection of them; and
man frere, according to master tailor Mark Hutter,
who called to share his discovery of eighteenth-
for the better government of Negros, Mulattos, and
century examples of Englishmen who wielded the
word as a derogatory appellation against the
Indians, bond or free." Paragraph XVII of this act
said that "No negro, mullatto, or Indian slaves,
shall be set free, upon any pretence whatsoever,
French. Mark points out that a targeted search of
except for some meritorious services, to be ad-
the electronic database Eighteenth -Century Col-
judged and allowed by the govemor and council,
for the time being, and a licence [sic] thereupon
first had and obtained" ( Hening, Statutes at
lections Online ( ECCO), now available to Co-
lonial Williamsburg employees through the John
D. Rockefeller Jr. Library website, pulls up several
derisive quotes that predate, by many decades, the
OED' s earliest example.
A 1773 printed poem, The Fair Quaker or
Humors of the Navy, in extolling the virtues of
Grogg," declares it to be the drink that makes
the English sailor " squeeze the French frog." The
second edition ( 1793) of a satirical work Topsy
Turvey: With Anecdotes and Observations Illustrative
of Leading Characters in the Present Government of
France tromps on eggshells with this from page 24:
But even these powerful authorities must yield to
M. l'Abbe Spallanzani, who has demonstrated that
Frogs, by which he means FRENCHMEN, ( substituting by learned license the Food for the Feeders).
This accurate and humane Experimentalist, I
repeat, has satisfactorily demonstrated that Frogs —
that is to say, FROG EATING FRENCHMEN,
when breech'd, tho' with but so slight a texture as
waxed taffety are thereby utterly disqualified for all
vigorous exertion, and rendered totally incompetent to the grand purposes of life."
Large, 4: 132).
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
22
Passed in response to rumored slave insurrec-
per hogshead, for his freedom; but that he
tions, the 1723 act permitted manumission only
remain still under the direction of the Government until he made a discovery of some
other secrets he has for expelling poison,
upon approval of the governor and council, and
then only as a reward for public service. Should
a slave be set free in any other manner ( by will
or deed, for example), the act required church-
and the cure of other diseases. [ Executive Journals of the Council of Colonial
wardens to return the person to slavery by sale
at public outcry. The governor and council
As for snakebite, a quarter century before this
manumitted only about twenty enslaved persons
event, Robert Beverley, in his 1705 History and
between 1723 and the late 1770s.
Present State of Virginia, mentioned the problem
of rattlesnakes. It is clear that Beverley wished to
The 1723 act did not spell out what exactly
was to be done, but the usual procedure was for
a slave owner to submit a written petition to the
governor and council describing the " meritori-
Virginia, 4: 1991
promote immigration to the colony and tried to
allay concerns about the poisonous reptile when
he wrote: " The bite of this viper, without some
ous service" and requesting permission to set his
immediate application, is certainly death; but
or her slave free.
The case of the enslaved man Papaw noted
below is a little bit different in that there is no
remedies are so well known, that none of their
mention of a petition by Papaw's owner. His me-
Question: In my early training with Colonial
Williamsburg, I heard that carriages traveling
dicinal skills came to the attention of the gover-
nor and council through some other means. In
fact, they felt compelled to pay his former owner
50 current money, a sure sign that she did not
seek freedom for Papaw herself.
Governor Gooch took this action on April
29, 1729, with councilors Robert Carter, John
Carter, James Blair, Richard Fitzwilliam, William Byrd, John Grymes, Cole Digges, William
Dandridge, John Robinson, John Custis, and
William Randolph. While the resolution does
not specifically mention snakebite, it is probably
inferred. The complete resolution reads.
Whereas upon consideration of the many
extraordinary Cures perform' d by Papaw
a Negro Slave belonging to Mistress]
Frances Litdepage of the County of New
Kent, it was resolved that means should
be used to obtain from him a discovery of
the secret whereby he performs the said
cures; and the said Papaw having upon
promise of his freedom now made an
ample discovery of the several medicines
made use of by him for that purpose to
the satisfaction of the Governor and the
Gentlemen appointed by him to inspect
the application and operation of the said
medicines, It is the opinion of this board
and accordingly ordered that as a reward
for useful a discovery, which may be of
great benefit to mankind, and more par-
ticularly to the preservation of the lives of
great numbers of the Slaves belonging to
the Inhabitants of this Country frequently
infected with the Yaws, and other venereal
distempers, the said Papaw be set free; and
that the sum of f30 current money be paid
to the said Mistress] Frances Littlepage
out of his Majesty's Revenue of 2 shillings
servants are ignorant of them. ( Linda Rowe, his-
torian, and Rose McAphee, training specialist)
Duke of Gloucester Street in Williamsburg's
first years seemed to disappear and reappear
on the horizon as they dipped in and out of the
ravines that still cut through the street at the
time. What is the documentary basis for this
story? (submitted by Adam Wright)
Answer: You may have read former Colonial
Williamsburg landscape architect Kent Brink ley's discussion of the ups and downs of Duke
of Gloucester Street, on page 193 of the Tak-
ing Possession story line resource book from
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
2000. Kent tells how Williamsburg residents
23
Main Street" and appointed trustees to oversee
petitioned the House of Burgesses in autumn of
the work. In 1722, Hugh Jones wrote that the
1720 to do something about the " irregularitys of
appropriation " was expended in removing earth
their principal street." That was two years before
Williamsburg received a charter authorizing
in some places, and building a bridge over a low
channel; so that it is now a pleasant, long dry
creation of its own municipal govemment with
walk, broad, and almost level from the College
a mayor and aldermen.
to the Capitol." The ambitious engineering
The original reference appears for Novem-
ber 28, 1720, in the Journal of the House of
Burgesses, 1712 - 1720 ( page 283). The wording
seems to indicate concern with "horizontal" issues surrounding the main street of the capital,
expressing frustration with the dipping in and
out of several ravines. Archaeological excava-
tion has shown the original depth of the ravine
at the Mary Stith Shop to have been seven and
a half feet below the present grade and twelve
feet at the Post Office just across the street.
The House of Burgesses appropriated £ 150
towards making Bridges and Causeways in the
included brick retaining walls at the present
Printing Office site and at Oreenhow Store
and a brick culvert that carried water under the
street at the Printing Office. Money ran out
before the repairs were finished; a request from
dissatisfied citizens for another appropriation
was denied. From then on, maintenance of the
streets was the bailiwick of the newly formed
town council.
Q & A was compiled by Bob Doares, training specialist in the Department of Interpretive Training.)
�The Colonial Williamsburg Imerp, eter
24
They are excellent singers, and long to get
some of Dr. Watt's Psalms and Hymns,
which I encourage them to hope for.
Interpreter's
Corner
Letter of Rev. John Wright, Presbyterian
minister active in Cumberland County,
Virginia, during the 1760s
For A Kid's Holiday Weekend programs at
the Geddy House, we will focus on the singChristmas
ing of psalms and hymns at church and home.
Music
Here's a brief look at what singing was like at
Bruton Parish Church ( and any other Church
of England in America) during the eighteenth
by Jane Hanson
century.
Sung metrical psalms ( more about what that
means later') usually provided the only vocal
Jane is a supervisor and musician in the Department
music in the church.
of Performing Arts.
The organ would not usually play while the
people were singing.
As much as we' d like to say differently, and
The clerk would " line -out" the psalm —
chant
contrary to what some Colonial Williamsburg
or sing one line at a time —and the congregation would sing that line back to him.
Hymns such as those by Isaac Watts and
Charles Wesley, including "Joy to the World,"
0 God, Our Help in Ages Past," and " Hark!
researchers have implied over the years, we have
no firsthand accounts of anyone singing Christmas songs ( as we know them today) in colonial
Virginia. There is some evidence of singing during the season, though. Here are several references from the time:
Now Christmas comes, ' tis fit that we
The Herald Angels Sing," were considered
too modem and too personal to be sung in
church.
For these reasons, singing was more often
Should feast and sing and merry be;
Keep open house, let fiddlers play,
enjoyed at home. Psalms were also played and
A fig for cold, sing care away;
And may they who thereat repine
sung at home. It was said that Thomas Jefferson
especially liked the psalm known as " St. David's
On brown bread and on small beer dine.
tune."
Virginia Almanack, 1764
Metrical psalms," mentioned above, resulted
24 December 1710
from people taking the psalms as written in the
Bible and rewriting them in meter with rhyming
About 11 o' clock we went to church and
phrases. Here's an example:
took possession of the pew which the vestry
Psalm 100: 1
gave us. We began to give in to the new
O be joyful in the Lord, all ye lands
way of singing Psalms.
The Secret Diary of
William Byrd of Westover
Serve the Lord with gladness and come
24 December 1775: Staunton, Virginia
The evening I spent at Mr. Guy's — I sung
for an hour, at the good People' s desire,
before His presence with a song
becomes this when written metrically:
All people that on earth do dwell
Sing to the Lord with cheerful voice
Him serve with mirth, His praise forth tell
Come ye before Him and rejoice.
This metrical psalm is written in what was
Mr. Watt's admirable hymns- I myself
was entertain' d; I felt myself improv' d; so
known as " long meter," often abbreviated LM
much Love to Jesus is set forth- So much
in collections of hymns, meaning that there are
divine Exercise.
eight syllables in each line —count them and
Journal of Philip Vickers Fithian
6 January 1761
My landlord tells me when he waited on
the Colonel ( Cary) at his countryseat two
or three days ( ago), they hears the Slaves
at worship in their lodge, singing Psalms
and Hymns in the evening, and again in
the morning, long before break of day.
find out! Any tune that is written for this meter
can be sung with these words.
When Isaac Watts wrote his hymns and published the first volume in 1707, he was writing
to bring New Testament truths into the psalms
and to
make them
more meaningful and un-
derstandable. " Joy to the World" is part of his
version of Psalm 98. It is set in "common meter"
or " CM" —
one line with eight syllables, six in
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
the next, eight again, and ending with six) and
can be sung to any existing tune in that meter.
His book looks like a big poetry tome instead
of a hymnal as we think of them today, because
he did not publish music with his hymns. The
reader was expected to choose the tune that fit
the desired hymn.
Hymns and the psalms ( a collection of psalms
was usually called the psalter —look in the back
of the Book of Common Prayer) were not often
published with music but they sometimes were.
Never say " never" when interpreting!) We
have in our rare book collection at the John D.
Rockefeller Jr. Library several psalters that have
music and words printed together. One was pub-
lished in London in 1738 by John Playford. Here
are some quotes front the introduction, which
you might like to use in your interpretations of
singing the psalms:
To sing Praises to God is an angelic Of-
fice, it is a Taste of the first Fruits of
Heaven while we are on Earth.
The singing of Psalms comforteth the sorrowful, pacifieth the Angry, strengthenth
the Weak, humbleth the Proud, gladeth the
Humble, ...
25
A catalogue of books to be sold at the post office
in Williamsburg ... Watt's Poems, Psalms, and
Hymns ...
29 November 1770, Virginia Ga-
zette
to be sold at the post office ... Doctor Watt's .. .
sermons on various subjects divine and moral;
with a sacred hymn suited to each subject .. .
25 July1771, Virginia Gazette
Dixon and Hunter have on hand the following
books, which they will sell cheap ... Harmonia
Sacra, or a Choice Collection of Psalm and
Hymn Tunes ...
24 August 1776, Virginia
Gazette
I already mentioned a little about Watts's
Joy to the World." Here's some information on
some other hymns, Christmas and otherwise.
0 Come, All Ye Faithful ( Adeste Fideles)"
The Latin words to this hymn are believed to
have been written by an unknown French poet
between the years 1685 and 1690. John Wade,
an Englishman working as a music copyist in a
Jesuit community in Douay, France, associated
the words with music. This hymn likely journeyed to England with French emigres during
reconcileth Enemies, lifteth
the French Revolution. Frederick Oakeley, a
up the Heart to Heavenly things, and
nineteenth -century British minister, translated
uniteth the Creature to His Creator; for
whatsoever is in the Psalms [ is] conduceth
to the Edification, Benefit and Consola-
the text into English.
tion of Mankind.
Here is another quote from a different book
of psalm tunes published by William Tans' ur in
New England in 1771:
And as Divine Musick excelleth all other
Arts in the known World, and is deemed
a heavenly Exercise and standing Part of
Devotion, how much the more ought we
to endeavor to the true Knowledge of it,
to perform it decently and in good Order:
While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks by
Night"
Nahum Tate wrote the words to this hymn
around 1700. They first appeared in a supplement to Tate and [ Nicholas] Brady's version of
the psalter in 1700. The tune is a psalm tune
called " Winchester Old" from Este's Psalter of
1592. By virtue of its inclusion in the supple-
ment to the psalter approved for worship by the
king himself, this Christmas song was allowed in
the Church of England.
And to follow the Examples of all good
men who have taken such Pains to recommend it.
Hark! The Herald Angels Sing"
This hymn was written and published by
Watts's psalms and hymns, originally pub-
Charles Wesley in 1739. The first line was dif-
lished in Boston in 1715, appeared in several
editions, including one printed by Benjamin
Franklin in Philadelphia ( 1729) and a more
ferent though: " Hark, how all the welkin ring."
Welkin comes from Old English and literally
complete Boston edition in 1730. It was, how-
first published, Whitefield edited Wesley's hymn
means " cloud" or "sky." Fourteen years after it was
ever, the great evangelist George Whitefield,
to include it in his own book of hymns in 1753.
who came to America in 1738 and again from
His revision is what we know today as " Hark! The
Herald Angels Sing." " Hark! The Herald Angels
Sing" was included in the 1782 supplement.
1739 to 1741, who was largely responsible for
promoting the hymns of Watts and Wesley to
American colonists.
Watts's book of hymns and other books with
hymn tunes were sold in Williamsburg at the
Printing Office ( also called the Post Office):
�26
The First Noel"
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
1748 storm, Newton gradually came to abhor
The meaning of noel is clouded in mystery.
One of the most logical explanations, however,
the practice of slavery, although he continued
is that it is properly spelled nowell, as the English
years. Following his ordination as a minister in
to serve as a slave ship captain for another seven
do, and is an abbreviated version of the saying,
the Church of England, he took a position in a
Now all is well," the phrase with which people
parish in Olney, England, in 1764. Newton wrote
many original hymns and versions of the psalms
greeted each other on Christmas morning. This
is only speculation, however; not fact. This
carol's origins are said to date back as far as the
seventeenth century.
Amazing Grace"
This hymn was written by John Newton,
a slave ship's captain turned minister. Having
become a Christian onboard his ship during a
and, in 1779, published a hymnal with poet Wil-
liam Cowper that included "Amazing Grace." It
is unlikely that those words were known or sung
in America during colonial times.
I hope this information is helpful as we lead
our guests in this " Divine Exercise" during the
upcoming Colonial Williamsburg holiday season.
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
27
New Titles in the
Janice McCoy Memorial Collection for Youth
John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library
Athan, Polly. Felicity' s Cookbook. Middleton,
Wis.: Pleasant Company Publications, 1994.
Fans of Felicity, the colonial American Girl
life of Gen. George Washington when he dined
at Mortier House in New York City.
character, will delight in this peek at dining in
Gunderson, Mary. Cooking on the Lewis and
the past with meals they can cook today.
Clark Expedition. Mankato, Minn.: Capstone
Anderson, LaVere. Martha Washington: First
Press, 2000. Discusses the everyday life, cooking
methods, and foods eaten on the journey of
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark up and
Lady of the Land. New York: Chelsea Juniors,
1991. Traces the public and private life of the
nation's first first lady.
beyond the Missouri River to the Pacific as
they charted the vast territory of the Louisiana
Purchase. Includes recipes.
Beller, Susan Provost. The History Puzzle: How
We Know What We Know About the Past.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Twenty -First Century
Books, 2006. Stories in this collection reveal
how historians and scientists act as detectives
searching for missing pieces in their quest for
Pioneer Farm Cooking. Mankato, Minn.:
Capstone Press, 2000. Discusses the everyday life,
family roles, cooking methods, and common foods
of pioneers who settled in the Midwest during the
late 1800s and early 1900s. Includes recipes.
accurate information about our past.
Haywood, John. World Atlas of the Past: The Age
Bradley, Michael R. It Happened in the
Revolutionary War. Guilford, Conn.: The
of Discovery, 1492 - 1815. New York: Oxford
University Press Inc., 1999. Volume three of a
Globe Pequot Press, 2003. Fascinating stories
four volume study of historical geography, from
-
about thirty events that helped shape the
the ancient world to modem times.
Revolutionary War, including little - nown
k
episodes that defined the birth of a nation.
Doherty, Kieran.
Soldiers,
Cavaliers,
and
Planters: Settlers of the Southeastern Colonies.
Minneapolis, Minn.: The Oliver Press Inc.,
1999. Discusses the lives of nine people who
were responsible for founding or fostering the
growth of settlements in the colonial American
South.
Ichord, Loretta E Hasty Pudding, Johnnycakes,
and Other Good Stuff: Cooking in Colonial
America. Brookfield, Conn.: The Millbrook
Press, 1998. Presents colonial food preparation
methods with a look at the influences of
available ingredients, cooking methods, and
equipment. Includes recipes and an appendix of
classroom- cooking directions.
Kalman, Bobbie. The Colonial Cook. New York:
Dosier, Susan. Colonial Cooking. Mankato,
Minn.: Capstone Press, 2000. Discusses the
Crabtree Publishing Company, 2002. Discusses
everyday life, family roles, cooking methods,
the foods, methods, equipment, and places used
by cooks in colonial America.
important foods, and celebrations of colonial
America. Includes recipes and sidebars.
Karwoski, Gail. Miracle: The True Story of the
Wreck of the Sea Venture. In the summer of 1609,
Griffin, Judith Ben-y. Phoebe, the Spy. New York:
Scholastic Book Services, 1977. The exciting
true story of Phoebe Fraunces, who saved the
a fleet of nine ships left England bound for the
Jamestown colony. Days before landfall, the
fleet was hit by a hurricane. Four nights later,
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
28
the flagship, Sea Venture, ran aground on the
reefs on Bermuda's northern coast. Miraculously,
everyone survived. This is their story.
nine year -old Maria worries that her mother
Keoke, Emory Dean. Food, Farming, and
family run newspaper.
will lose her contract to publish official reports
and announcements of the British government
because she prints anti British articles in their
Hunting. New York: Facts on File Inc., 2005.
Explores Native American peoples' hunting,
fishing, gathering, and farming practices that
helped sustain early European colonists and
continue to play a role in feeding the world's
population today.
Nancy' s Story:
1765. New York:
Delacorte Press, 2000. In 1765, twelve- year -old
Nancy worries about the effect of the British
Stamp Act on her father's silversmith business
in Williamsburg and about how to get along
with her new stepmother.
Nixon, Joan Lowery. Ann's Story: 1747. New
York: Delacorte Press, 1999. Ann, a young girl
in eighteenth- century Williamsburg, wants to
Sateren, Shelley S. Going to School in Colonial
become a doctor like her father, but she is not
America. Mankato, Minn.: Capstone Press,
2002. Discusses the school life of children who
allowed even to study Latin and mathematics.
lived in the thirteen colonies, including lessons,
books, teachers, examinations, and special days.
Caesar's Story: 1759. New York:
Delacorte Press, 2000. After having been
Includes activities and sidebars.
a slave on Carter's Grove plantation near
Stanley, Diane. Good Queen Bess: The Story
of Elizabeth I of England. New York: Harper
Williamsburg, Virginia, since childhood, Caesar
finally finds a way to plan his own future.
Collins, 2001. This account of Elizabeth I's
Press, 2001. In Williamsburg in 1775, as events
reign amid the turmoil of the Reformation
discusses how she acted with tolerance and
moderation in religious matters and spared her
threaten to plunge the colonies into war with
country much of the dreadful tug -of - ar taking
w
Britain, eleven year -old John feels caught
place between Catholics and Protestants.
John's Story: 1775. New York: Delacorte
between the revolutionary sentiments of his
older brother and his father's insistence on a
Waters, Kate. Mary teddy' s Day: A Colonial
more temperate and patient course of action.
Girl in Williamsburg. New York: Scholastic
Press, 1999. Family life of a successful craftsman
Maria's S tory: 1773. Newyork: Delacorte
Press, 2001. In Williamsburg, Virginia, two years
before the start of the American Revolution,
and tradesman James Geddy is told through the
eyes of his young daughter.
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
29
New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library's
Special Collections
Andre, Maj. John. Andre' s Journal ( Boston:
Bibliophile Society, 1903), 2 vols. This work,
by the charismatic and popular British officer
who was hanged as a spy, lay undiscovered in
England until 1902. It provides a daily record of
the movements and engagements of the British
from ancient times, observing that when citizens
of the Greek city-state of Corinth established a
new colony at Epidamus, all citizens were to have
equal and like privileges with those who staid at
home." Hopkins cites an act of George II stating
army in America from June 1777 to November
that inhabitants of his colonies were deemed to be
subjects of the kingdom of Great -Britain, to all
1778. Maps and plans drawn by Andre are
intents, constructions, and purposes, as if they, and
included. E280. A5 A22 1903
Anna Regni Georgii 111 . ..
An Act for Granting
and Applying certain Stamp Dudes ( London: Mark
every one of them, had been, or were born within
the same." The author hopes that Providence
will continue to perpetuate the sovereignty of the
British constitution and the filial dependency of
Baskett, 1765). This infamous law levied taxes
on all legal and commercial papers, pamphlets,
the colonies. E215. 2. H66 1766
newspapers, almanacs, paying cards, and dice
Immediate colonial outrage caused its repeal in
Levasseur, Auguste. LaFayette in America, in
the following year, but the bittemess lingered
United States ( New York: White, Gallaher &
and, coupled with the subsequent
White, 1829), 2 vols. Written by a secretary
Townshend
Duties and Intolerable Acts, it engendered
the grievances described in the Declaration of
Independence. E215. 2. G747 1765
Gazette Frangoise ( New York: Grolier Club,
1824 and 1825; or, Journal of Travels, in the
traveling with the Marquis, the reminiscences
recount their time spent revisiting the newly
developing country. Lafayette' s reception in the
quiet town of Williamsburg is recounted. E207.
L2 L4813
1926). This scarce and little known volume
includes the few issues produced between
Mellen, George Washington F. An Argument on
November 17, 1780, and January 2, 1781,
the Unconstitutionality of Slavery ( Boston: Saxton
on printing presses carried by the French
Pierce, 1841). This flamboyant and eccentric
fleet supporting the colonial cause during
abolitionist abstracts proceedings of the national
the American Revolution. The newspapers
include the information French commanders
and state legislatures on the subject of slavery.
wanted known among their troops. Absence of
Although arguing that the Constitution did not
recognize the right to hold slaves, Mellon was
some events suggests that they may have been
censored. The press was carried aboard the
seldom cited by fellow abolitionists because of
Neptune and was later set up by Rochambeau's
the reincarnation of Washington, together with
forces on shore in Newport, Rhode Island, and
known as " L'Imprimerie Royale de l' Escadre "
Uncat.
Greatrakes, William. An Application of some
General Political Rules to the Present State of
Great Britain, Ireland and America in a Letter to
the Right Honourable Earl Temple ( London: J.
Almon, 1766). The author addresses Temple,
brother -in -law and political ally of William Pitt,
concerning rights of colonial citizens and traces
the rights of colonies in the ancient world. He
argues that American colonists are, by right and
inheritance, British and have every claim to the
care and regard of those in the mother country.
his embarrassing tendency to imagine himself
a habit of appearing at antislavery meetings
dressed in Revolutionary uniform. KF4545. S5
M451841
Necessity of Repealing the American Stamp -Act
Demonstrated ( London: J. Almon, 1766). This
work, subtitled " a proof that Great Britain must
be injured by that Act," was sent in a letter
to a member of the House of Commons. The
unknown author, a British traveler recently
returned from the American colonies, argues
that the loss of commercial enterprise will
redound to the mutual detriment of both sides.
E215. 2. N43 1766
DA507. A7 1766
Rowland, David S. Divine Providence Illustrated
Hopkins, Stephen. The Grievances of the American
Colonies candidly Examined ( Providence, R.I.,
and Improved ( Providence, R. I.: Sarah Goddard,
1766). This discourse was delivered in the
Presbyterian or Congregational Church of
1766). This work traces the rights of colonies
Providence on June 4, 1766, on the occasion of
�30
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
His Majesty's birthday and also in celebration of
New York, 1824). Printed during the year of
the day of rejoicing at the repeal of the Stamp
Lafayette's triumphal American tour, after an
Act. The text is taken from Psalm 126:3, " The
absence of some forty years following the allied
Lord hath done great things for us; whereof we
victory at Yorktown, this work traces his life
are glad," and is dedicated to Henry Conway,
and describes his arrival in New York and the
festivities offered him there. E207. L2 S6 1824
principal secretary of state and privy counselor,
whose support of repeal made him a " Patron of
Liberty." E215. 2 R69 1766
Smith, William. A Sermon on the Present
Situation of American Affairs ( Philadelphia:
Rudiments ofArchitecture: or, the YoungWorkman's
Instructor ( Edinburgh: James Dickson, 1778).
This early Scottish architectural book, largely a
James Humphreys, 1775). The text is taken
from Joshua 22: 22 and argues for recognition
of the mutual common interests of Great
and LeClerc' s Treatise, includes sections on
Britain and the colonies " ardently panting for
the return of those Halcyon - ays of harmony,
d
orders, architectural details, and surveying as
during which both countries so long flourished
well as a builder's dictionary. There are also
together, as the glory and wonder of the world."
E297. S65 1775
compilation from Salmon's Palladio Londinensis
designs of buildings built in Scotland. NA2515.
R82 1778
Submitted by George Yetter, associate curator for
Sketch of the Life and Military Services of Gen.
LaFayette during the American Revolution
the architectural drawings and research collections,
John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library.
�Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer /Fall 2008
31
Publication of
this issue of the Interpreter
was made possible
by a gift from
James H. and Sherry P. Hubbard
of Severna Park, Maryland
The Colonial Williamsburg Cnterpreter ispublished
dueetimes a yearby the Research and Historical
Interpretation Division.
Editor:
Nancy Milton
Copy.Editors: < : Mary Ann E Williamson
Beth.Lawrence Smizilc<
Assistant Editor Linda Rowe
EditorialBoard: Emma L. Powers
Planning Board: Laura Arnold Harvey Bakari,
Bertie Byrd, Bob Doares,
Jan Gilliam, Wesley Greene,
Andrea Squires, John Turner,
Ron Warren, ; ete White
P
Production:
The Marketing Creative
Services Department
Diana Freedman
2008 The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. All rights reserved.
All images are the property .
of
The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, unless otherwise noted.
�A COLONIAL WILLI.AMSBURG ADVCNTUAL
LVTIO Aft(
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter, volume 29, number 2, Summer/Fall 2008
Description
An account of the resource
Revolutionary Reflections: Voices from the War Years in Williamsburg -- Who's Who in the Publick Gaol, 1776-1777 -- As the Dust Settles: An Update on the Archaeological Excavations at the James Wray Site -- Cook’s Corner: Foodways resources in the Rockefeller Library -- The Bothy’s Mould: Snails, Flies, and Caterpillars part I -- Questions and Answers -- The Interpreter’s Corner: Christmas Music -- New at the Rock: New Titles in the Janice McCoy Memorial Collection for Youth John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library -- New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library's Special Collections
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/81f4d996bdeb3adcab86bcd443a145fe.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=SGb6UQjhVyJWUpAoagzSCgixPRd407j9AwkTJe%7ExwzMgvBbhDrAoBPce0XpiMopdHLmDtzIeOyIfmRwEqlGFmE5hwjNI0sQR5ANphTxqSI3sCt%7Ei72tzhI5jEDU9%7E-rCzioQ68TTOLziFHKe-fORZmHKfCF5oRd3fPfQSkoNFK6GI93yqBC7M5P5HxA9N5X0aLHgxucrY8cSqlKp%7EzMIDpNHZGE4n5JHgQ48Lz3pRHootq7DjJIS9btSSZMd2xXevndbSGogmCqc6weH-gj9cvcCPcgwWMw7C65KbyGayIFSCirXYZmL47UN4VqNgnrrgTtE6N4tt-8oeflGpAzqDQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
8e9dcc29d708ca1fcf6363597268bbcb
PDF Text
Text
COLONIAL
WILLIAMSBURG
SPRING 2008
VOL. 29, NO. 1
Mary Powell Charlton: Sampler, Portrait, Bible, and Family
by Patricia A. Gibbs
Pat is a former historian, now volunteer, in the Department of Historical Research.
Seymour and Jane Powell of Yorktown, applied
Detail of lower portion of Mary Powell's sampler showing names and birth dates of her parents and siblings.
the final stitches to her sampler. She had every
she worked the sampler. Private collection.
One day in 1769, 9- year -old Mary, daughter of
The final lines show her name, birth date, and the year
right to feel proud of her accomplishment, and
we can thank the individuals who treasured and
featured in the DeWitt Wallace Decorative Arts
Museum exhibition American Schoolgirl Needle-
saved Mary's needlework.
The sampler, a Charles Willson Peale portrait
work: Records of Virtue. 1 Since few personal pa-
of Mary as an adult, and her Bible are currently
pers relating to her family have survived, these
three
Also in this issue .. .
New Orleans and the American Revolution"
by M. Couvillon
11
Cook's Comer" by J. Gay
14
Q & A" by B. Doares
17
As the Dust Settles" by M. Poole
21
The Silver Skull Plate" by D. Lovelace
26
Bothy's Mould" by L. Griffith
33
Interpreter's Comer" by J. Hollins
39
objects
offer
significant
evidence
about
Mary's life as a young girl, wife, and mother in
a middling Yorktown ( and later Williamsburg)
merchant -planter family.
Seymour Powell's family lived in Warwick
and York counties for several generations; by
the 1760s, several family members resided in
Williamsburg. Although no evidence directly
links Mary's father to Williamsburg residents
Benjamin Powell and his brother Seymour,
circumstantial
evidence
suggests
that the
two
brothers were uncles of Mary's father. Two more
her father's brother Peter Powell and
relatives —
lived in Williamsburg.2
New at the Rock —
New Items in
Special Collections" by G. Yetter
Editor's Notes
her father's uncle George Jackson Powell —also
40
By naming their children for parents, grandparents, siblings, aunts, and uncles, the Powell
42
family adopted naming pattems common in early
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
2
Virginia. Seymour, sometimes spelled Seymore,
he inherited Kate, Hannah, and Jemmy from
was a common Powell family first name. Mary's
his brother Thomas's estate. While several of
father shared the name with his grandfather and
the slaves may have helped around the house
likely with his uncle ( Benjamin Powell's brother).
In turn, Mary's parents named a son Seymour, as
did both Mary and her sister Rose Lilly. It is likely
probably worked on his plantations.5
that Mary was named for her aunt and paternal
grandmother. Except for her sister Rose Lilly,
Mary and her siblings all bear names of one or
more immediate Powell relatives.
Tracing the family histories of early Virginians is often uneven, with the weights heavily
stacked on the paternal side. We know nothing
about the maternal side of Mary's family, since
Jane Powell' s maiden name is unknown. While
Jane Powell's family may have lived in eastern
or with Seymour' s mercantile operations, most
Seymour and Jane Powell probably married
in the late 1750s. Mary, their first child, and
her siblings were likely born in Yorktown, unless Jane's mother or other female relatives lived
nearby. In early Virginia it was customary for
women in the late stages of pregnancy to return
to the homes of their mothers or other female
relatives for support and assistance before, dur-
ing, and immediately after giving birth.
We can assume that this merchant husband
and his wife appreciated the value of education
Virginia for some years, she could have immi-
and expected their children to at least master
grated to Virginia.
basic skills of reading, writing, and ciphering.
As was generally true among their peers, the
Powells probably intended for their sons to have
more schooling than their daughters, who, after
mastering basic literacy, would be trained by
their mother in housewifery skills in preparation for marriage and managing a household.
During a time when most Virginia women
married by their early 20s, giving birth to her
first known child at age 27 was unusually late
and suggests that Jane and Seymour married
when she was in her mid -20s. On the other
hand, the spacing of Jane's children (from about
a year and a half to two years apart) and the
Seymour's will, written when all of his children
number of children she had ( seven) are typical
for Virginians of this period.
were underage, provided for " the maintainence
Seymour Powell was one of ten children born
and education of my children until they come
to the age of 21 years or married." The level
to York County planter Thomas Powell and his
wife, Mary. Thomas was probably in his mid- to
late 40s when he died in early 1739, leaving his
number of books Seymour owned ( " 35 Small
wife with several adult children and the rest —
he died.6
including Seymour— underage.
Perhaps Mary, like Nelly Calvert of Norfolk,
began her initial instruction in reading, spelling,
Seymour likely spent his early life on the family's plantation, but, by the early 1750s, he had
moved to Yorktown, leased a house, obtained an
ordinary license, and was operating a tavern. In
1754, Powell was appointed constable for York
County, a position he held for some years. By
the early 1760s he had become a merchant.3
When and where Mary's father first purchased land in rural York County or Yorktown
of literacy in this family is also reflected in the
printed Books of History &
Religion ")
when
and writing at about age 6 at a small neighbor-
hood school. After several years, Nelly recalled,
I was sent to a Mrs. Johnson ...
She taught me
needle -work and marking on the sampler. "7 On
the other hand, Mary might have been taught
by her mother.
Mary's sampler, however, offers tangible evidence suggesting another possibility. Her sam-
is uncertain, but court records show he served
pler
as a juror in land causes in 1749, indicating he
with another
owned land by that date. Though no record of
about 1760 by Frances Burwell ( born 1747), the
his land purchases in Yorktown survive, through
daughter of Col. Robert Burwell of Isle of Wight
the years he acquired several lots, including
County and Sally Nelson Burwell, a daughter
his residence ( the " house at the water side in
Yorktown ") mentioned in his will.
of Thomas Nelson of Yorktown. An exhibition
By the mid -1760s Powell's business was expanding. He owned a warehouse, and he and
his brother Hudson advertised in 1767 that they
Notice the similarities in the building and
the fruit trees on Mary Powell's sampler
and Frances Burwell's piece seen nearby.
shares
several
remarkable
sampler
on
characteristics
exhibit,
one
stitched
caption invites viewers to
had a new sloop available for charter to the
The almost identical motifs on Mary' s
West Indies. Seymour purchased several parcels
sampler are larger because of the coarser
of rural York County land: 230 acres in 1770 and
thread count of the linen ground fabric.
330 acres three years later.4
The samplers may have been worked
By the end of his life Seymour had acquired
thirteen slaves, perhaps beginning in 1749 when
under the instruction of the same needlework teacher.
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
Both samplers depict a similar, gable -end
3
The years leading up to and during the Revolution were challenging ones for merchants.
building —
perhaps the Custom House or the
west end of the nearby house of Frances Bur -
As trade with Great Britain ceased, merchants
well's grandfather in Yorktown whose number
had to temporarily then permanently seek new
and position of windows match the building
markets and sources of income, and chance their
shown on the samplers.
A family record sampler, Mary's stitchery
shipped goods being captured at sea or diverted
by British blockades. 10
shows the year she made the sampler, 1769,
As it became apparent in the early fall of 1781
and the names and birth dates of her parents
that Washington and Rochambeau planned to
and siblings. Public records note their names,
attack Cornwallis's army at Yorktown, many
residents, presumably including the Powell fam-
but only Mary's stitches reveal their birth dates:
father, Seymour Powell born October 19, 1723;
mother, Jane Powell bom September 9, 1733;
Mary born July 4, 1760, followed by brothers
Thomas bom March 11, 1762, Seymour born
October 22, 1763, John born May 7, 1766, and
her baby sister, Rose Lilly bom July 11, 1768.
Later records list two more siblings, a brother
named William and a sister named Jane, bom
after 1769.8
As the oldest child in a growing family where
a new sibling was born every one and a half to
two years, Mary likely assumed increasing responsibilities as she aged for assisting her mother
with child care and other household duties. In
ily, left town. Although no one filed a claim, it
is likely that Powell's Yorktown property and
residence suffered damages during the battle.
Many other Yorktown houses were ransacked
and many buildings along the riverfront were
severely damaged or destroyed. 11
Mary's father died sometime before May 20,
1782, the date his will was recorded. When he
wrote his will six years earlier, Seymour intended
for his wife, Jane, to receive ten of his slaves and
specified livestock and live in his house at the
waterfront until she could have a house built on
part of his rural land.
Then he expected her to sell his Yorktown
Jane Powell taught her daughter the domestic
skills needed to run a successful household when
property, his " goods wares & merchandizes," and
the remainder of his rural land to pay his debts;
keep one- eighth of the proceeds for herself; and
she married. Perhaps Mary also received instruc-
invest the remainder for the maintenance and
tion in dance and deportment. As the daughter
education of their seven children until they
reached age 21 or married and received their
addition to any formal schooling Mary received,
of a middling merchant, it is also possible that
Mary assisted her father at his store when she
one -eighth share of his estate. Reflecting the
reached her mid teen years.
general expectation that his daughters would
sick enough to write his will, a turn of events
marry, Powell stipulated that his " sons may be
brought up to such business as my wife may
that must have concerned his entire family. At
think proper. "12
the time, Seymour was 53, his wife, Jane, was
As directed in the will, Jane Powell qualified as executrix on September 17, and the
By early January 1776, Seymour Powell was
ten years younger, and their children were all
underage: Mary almost 16, Thomas almost 14,
Seymour 13, John almost 10, Rose almost 8,
Jane perhaps 6, and William perhaps 4.
We do not know whether Seymour Powell's
illness was temporary or lingering. His last
recorded public action was to sign, along with
York County Court appointed appraisers to
inventory Seymour Powell's personal property.
Reflecting the lifestyle of a successful middling
merchant, the inventory gives no hint of the
devastation that the Powells' residence possibly
suffered nearly a year earlier during the siege of
fifty -wo other male residents of Yorktown, a
t
petition to the General Assembly:
For the better and more orderly Government of the place, they pray that an Act
may pass for creating the said Town into
Yorktown. Perhaps the family removed many of
a Corporation, with power to make Bye -
he died. Also missing, with the exception of a
laws for regulating their police, restraining Enormities, repairing their Streets &
Landings & for other such salutary pur-
horse, mare, cow, and several plows that could
that the land at the Waterside
ally included in the inventory of someone who
owned more than 500 acres of rural land.13
poses &
may be added to the Town.
There are few references to him during these
their household furnishings before the battle.
The inventory also lists no store goods, possibly indicating that poor health had forced Powell
to quit his business some months or years before
have been kept in town, are the usual number
of animals, tools, and farming equipment gener-
Jane Powell continued to occupy the family
years, but that could be attributed in part to dis-
residence in Yorktown. If Seymour had not ar-
ruptions caused by the Revolutionary War.9
ranged for his older sons to be apprenticed to
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
4
another merchant or tradesman before he died,
One possible scenario is that Charlton first
Jane probably saw to that. It is likely that her
met Joshua Johnson in London in the mid- to
youngest son, William, remained at home until
late 1770s and followed him to Nantes to clerk
for the firm. Then, perhaps, Charlton accompanied Johnson when he retumed to Maryland via
he was apprenticed and her daughters lived
there until they married.
Rose Lilly married Claudius Vial of Hanover
County in September 1786, and Jane married
William A. Rogers of Yorktown by the late
London in 1783. 18
The date of publication of the small, travel -
size Charlton family Bible on exhibit, printed
1790s. In the 1780s and 1790s, Jane paid taxes
in Oxford, England, in 1782, fits this scenario.
on five to seven slaves and one to four horses in
town. She also paid taxes on 560 acres of land in
the county until 1790, when she sold 443 acres
A note written opposite the title page by one of
Francis and Mary's children states: " This precious volume was brought from London by my
to William Goosley.14
beloved father, Francis Charlton, in the autumn
On February 20, 1786, Mary Powell married Francis Charlton at a ceremony conducted
by the Rev. Samuel Shield. The public record
of 1784 and presented to my beloved mother in
May 1789. name on next page written in her
only informs us that the wedding took place
suggests that the note was written after or near
in York County, but we know it was customary
in eighteenth- century Virginia for marriages to
the time of Mary's death in 1811 nearly 30 years
take place at the home of the bride or a close
could allow for the minor one -year discrepancy
relative.15
in the note. 19
own dear hand." The tone of the annotation
after Charlton's 1783 arrival in Maryland. This
Who was Francis Charlton and what brought
Wallace, Johnson, and Muir records show
him to Yorktown? Charlton is a fairly common
that in 1783 and 1784 the firm expanded its
British surname; a number of people with that
consignment trade into Virginia and occasion-
surname lived in Maryland and eastern Virginia
ally sent their "principal clerk" Francis Charlton
to the York River to represent the company. A
by the mid eighteenth century. To date, no information has come to light linking Francis Charlton
letter copied into William Lee' s letterbook may
with any of these persons with the same sumame
refer to business transacted on one of these trips.
who lived in the Williamsburg area: tailor George
Charlton, who arrived in Williamsburg from Lon-
Writing from Greenspring on August 15, 1784,
don with his mantuamaker wife, Ann, in 1738;
wigmaker Edward Charlton, who arrived from
London about 1752 and later married milliner
Yorktown about a dispute with a ship's captain,
to a Mr. Charlton at Mrs. Gibbon's tavern in
Lee invited Charlton " to do me the honour of a
Visit as you go up the Cuntry."20
Jane Hunter; or wigmaker and tavemkeeper Rich-
When the Annapolis firm decided to stop
ard Charlton, who lived in Williamsburg from the
conducting its consignment trade in tidewater
1760s until his death in 1779. 16
Virginia around the mid- 1780s, Francis Charl-
There is a good possibility that the man Mary
ton may have left the company and decided to
Powell later married was the same Francis Charlton
who earlier clerked for Wallace, Johnson, and Muir,
open a store in Yorktown. Although Seymour
Several years before the Revolution, Joshua John-
Powell died four years before Francis wed Mary,
this marriage linked Charlton to a family with
long -established commercial and social con-
son represented the firm in London before moving
its base of operations to France. Company records
nections in Yorktown, Williamsburg, and York
County.
one of the leading mercantile firms in Annapolis.
show that Charlton clerked for Johnson when he
lived in Nantes during the war.17
Since no land or tax records for Yorktown
or York County list Francis Charlton as a landowner, it is possible that the Charltons lived
with or next door to Mary's mother on one of
Seymour Powell's waterfront lots in Yorktown
T H E
4` 724 ethi
HOLY BIBLE 7
Ott/ CONTAINING' / 769y
Tte Old
and rented some of the seven slaves owned by
Jane Powell. Personal property tax records do
not show that Francis Charlton owned any
slaves until 1788, when he is listed as having
two slaves over 16. 21
Tf t amen, 9
AND
THE . VE IY:
Detail of upper portion of Bible title page showing Mary
Charlton's signature and the date Francis Charlton gave the
Bible to his wife. Private collection.
�5
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
This undated entry for mid - ay
M
in Peale's diary confirms the transaction: "
I have began a portrait
of Mrs. Calahan also a portrait
of Mrs. Charlton &
child —
Mr.
Charlton going to Virginia offered
me the payment which I have re-
ceived in full for his Lady &
Child
15 Guineas." That Peale painted
the portrait is further validated by
the artist's signature and date just
above the chair back: " CWPeale
painted 1789. "23
See the sidebar for art historian
Leslie K. Reinhardt's discerning
analysis of the painting.
On May 23 of that year, accord-
ing to a note in the family Bible,
Francis gave the volume to Mary,
who signed her name and wrote
the date in the upper right comer
of the title page.24
The late 1790s were trying years
for Mary Powell Charlton. Around
the middle of 1797, Mary's mother,
Jane Powell, died in Yorktown.
Several months later the Charltons
moved to Williamsburg, perhaps
Portrait of Mary Powell Charlton and her daughter,
Jane Catherine, painted by Charles Willson Peale
in 1789. Private collection.
because Francis anticipated that
his business prospects would be greater there.
Although the former capital had been reduced
Although we do not know any of the birth
to a provincial town for some years, Williamsburg
remained the county seat of James City County,
dates, and only the birth year for several of
continued to have a local market, and supported
Francis and Mary's children ( Thomas Powell
two major institutions ( the College of William
born about 1787, Francis born in 1793, and
and Mary and the Public Hospital).
Seymour Powell bom in 1795), the fact that
they had six children during their twelve - ear
y
Charlton bought the house and lot where the
Orlando Jones House has been reconstructed and
marriage suggests that most of the children were
rented a building on Francis Street across from
born about one and a half to two years apart. It is
the Public Hospital where he operated a store.
likely that their first child, Jane Catherine, was
Charlton's time as a merchant in Williamsburg,
born near the end of 1786. 22
however, was cut short when he died on Janu-
With no surviving business records for Francis
ary 17, 1798, from what Jane Catherine later
Charlton, it is not possible to measure his success
termed " a short and sudden indisposition. "25
as a merchant, but 1789 could have been a good
Thus Mary, like her mother and grandmother
before her, suddenly became a widow with un-
year for his business. Or, he may have had another reason to want to do something special for
his wife and young daughter Jane Catherine.
Perhaps through his mercantile connections,
Francis learned that Charles Willson Peale
planned to travel from Philadelphia to Maryland in May 1789, or Francis, Mary, and their
young daughter may have just happened to be
visiting in Annapolis when Peale was in town.
Regardless, Francis arranged for Peale to paint a
portrait of his wife and daughter.
derage children. The "3 small Beds and furniture
for children" listed in Charlton's inventory are
poignant reminders that Francis and Mary's
six children were young, ranging in age from
Seymour, who was 3, up to Jane Catherine, who
was about 12. In between were Mary Lorraine,
George Washington, Thomas Powell ( who was
and Francis ( who was 5). 26
Tax records for 1798 note that Mary Charl-
about 11),
ton obtained a retail license for the store, signal-
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
6
Mrs. Francis Charlton ( Mary Powell) and
real dress, identified as childlike, and invented
has a small format but rich con-
dress, identified as adult, natural, and beautiful.
tent. The mother is seated and embraces her
The lightness of tone prevents this pictured
daughter with one hand. The child stands next
theme from being too didactic... .
Daughter ...
to her, leaning against her lap. Both look directly at the viewer while holding some of the
flowers deposited in the woman's lap.
She [ Mary] wears an apricot colored invented
In the Charlton portrait, the flowers are
depicted carefully and can all be identified.
Mrs. Charlton wears jasmine at her bosom.
She holds a spray of mock orange ( Philadelphus)
dress of the style standard for Peale, with bell -
below some honeysuckle ( Lonicera) . A small
shaped elbow length sleeves, voluminous gauzy
undersleeves caught up in front with a strand of
bloom of hawthorn ( Crataegus) lies in her lap.
pearls, a bodice that suggests looseness but main-
tains a regularized torso form, a loosely tied blue
All of these flowers could be found in America at the time, but except for the rose are not
sash with gold tassels, and an airy asymmetric
common in pothaits....
gauze scarf draped about the neckline. Invention
child holds probably symbolizes her youth, still
is signaled primarily with the numerous folds
that indicate a loosely draped quality rather than
unopened. The jasmine ... is notable for its pow-
the smooth fit of fashion.
A watch hangs from her waist or sash end,
The child holds a rosebud.
The rosebud that the
erful fragrance rather than for showy flowers, and
indicates that the sitter's unseen beauty surpasses
her outward appearance.
minutely detailed in contrast to the vaguer
handling of costume. A miniature hangs from
a cord around her neck, and a sprig of jasmine
The meaning of the other flowers is not obvious, and since they occur nowhere else in Peale's
work, may have had some personal meaning for
decorates the center front. Her light brown
the sitter. However, like the jasmine, the other
hair is unpowdered and appears unarranged,
lying close and almost flat to the head, and
falling into loose ringlets.
flowers all have strong fragrances and simple
rather than showy appearance. Mock orange
particularly is famous for its fragrance, though
The child's dress is only partially visible.
its flowers are simple. Peale used these natural-
From what can be seen, it is consistent with
istic renderings of familiar flowers to convey the
contemporary children's fashion: it is white,
with straight elbow- length sleeves, and square
theme of inner beauty and make the meaning
immediate and local, in the same way that he in-
neckline. The sash is a feature of such dress,
cluded specific, identifiable locations and houses
but here is made to echo that worn by the
in other portraits.
mother, with a gold tassel fringe.
Below the flowers, the watch is placed promi-
She wears a white hat with two large
nently against the ground of drapery. Its precise
feathers and a gilt ribbon. This accords with
divination also draws the viewer's attention, and
fashionable dress for children, which in the
contrasts with the invention of the rest of the cos-
1770s and 1780s included large caps and hats.
Although the hat fits the child's head, its large
flamboyant feathers dwarf her frame, and provide a humorous tone.
In contrast to the child's dramatic headgear,
tume. In conjunction with the flowers, it might
the woman's head departs markedly from the
fashionable style, which at this date was very
be read as a memento mori indicating the fleeting
nature of beauty. However, in concert with the
specific meaning of fragrant flowers as indicating
inward and invisible beauty, and with the context
of invented dress it may be read emblematically.
often wom as well. Unlike most of the hairstyles
Writers characterized watches as decorative and
feminine, and emphasized that their true worth
is found inside —as Peale's own experience as a
wide and often frizzed and powdered. Hats were
in Peale portraits, which maintained the gen-
watchmaker would have taught him... .
eral fashionable height or width while avoiding
powder and adding long tresses, this one appears
almost completely undressed and flat. Usually
Beautifully painted, with sympathetic characterizations and resonant imagery, the Char-
the hair framing the face more or less followed
beauty with a lightness, informality, and tender-
the fashionable silhouette. Mrs. Charlton's head
ness that make it one of Peale's most thoughtful
contrasts pointedly with the fashionable hat her
and successful.
lton portrait conveys the theme of virtuous
daughter wears. Because her hair is so flat, there
may even be a suggestion that Mrs. Charlton has
Leslie Kaye Reinhardt, " Fabricated Images: In-
removed her own hat.
The child provides a foil for the mother's
appearance, and the pictured dress contrasts
vented Dress in British and Colonial American
Portraits" (
Ph. D.
diss.,
2003), 423 - 426, 428.
Princeton University,
�7
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
ing her intention to operate it on Francis Street.
ing, educating, and caring for six young children
The inventory of Francis Charlton's personal
property shows he ran a general store, selling
female relative.
and, for several years, also caring for a young
merchandise that included wine, liquor, tea,
Tax records show that Mary Charlton con-
coffee, sugar, spices, nails, hoes, locks, dishes,
glassware, fabrics, blankets, stockings, gloves,
and shoe buckles.
tinued to obtain retail licenses through 1810.
Although tax records indicate that Francis
and later, Mary, owned several slaves, none is
listed in the inventory, perhaps because they
actually belonged to Mary. Neither the portrait
nor the family Bible is listed in the inventory,
indicating they also belonged to his wife.27
Francis Charlton died without a will, so the
court appointed Mary administratrix to settle his
estate, a task complicated by the fact that the es-
It appears that Mary's health failed that year or
early in the next. Entries in the family Bible record some of the sorrows the family experienced
in the next decade.
On April 19, 1811, Jane Catherine noted:
My much beloved and truly amiable Mother
departed this life aged 51 at her residence in
Wmsburg." Two years later, on March 12 she
noted: "
my beloved Brother, Francis Charlton
departed this life aged 20." Nine years later she
recorded the death of another brother, Seymour
tate of her mother remained unsettled. A docu-
Powell Charlton: "
ment written by Jane Catherine in 1816 reveals
some of the hardships her mother faced during
Charlton entered into the joy of his Lord Friday
these years. " Left in a widowed state, with 5, or
My beloved Brother S. P.
29th Sept 1820 aged 25. "29
Administering her mother's estate fell to
c, and
Jane Catherine, who was then about 25. The
that too with very, indeed limited means," her
mother, "under the persuasions that her Broth-
family's circumstances dictated that Jane and
Brothers in Law would not withhold that
mother's personal property, including three
fair proportion of her deceased mothers
slaves, household furnishings, and store goods,
could be auctioned. The first of two auctions
was held on August 12, 1811, and the second a
6 young Children to maintain, Educate &
ers &
just &
estate, to which she was legally entitled, left the
management of it, solely to them. But she was
egregiously deceived ... so it was that the whole
estate was divided & subdivided among themselves &
not a particle or portion of it assigned
to the widow Mrs. C or her family."
Jane Catherine also recalled that about 1803
her mother took in 8- year - ld Rosey Vial ( the
o
daughter of Mary's sister Rose Lilly, who may
have been dead by that date) and " boarded,
nurtured, &
attended her free of costs until 1806
or 1807 [ when] a combination of circumstances
obliged" her mother to send Rosey to live with
another relative.28
Jane Catherine did not elaborate on the
of circumstances"
her mother
combination
faced in the early 1800s, but several things are
obvious. Mary Charlton was a widowed, working mother in her 40s with "limited means" rear-
her siblings move out of the house so her
year later on October 20, 1812. 30
Where the children lived next, and if together or separated, is uncertain but another
of Jane Catherine's Bible entries offers a clue:
Saturday 13th June 1812 my dearest Sister
Mary L. Charlton married at Mrs. Powell's in
Wmsburg, to Robert Greenhow of Richmond."
The groom's entry, as recorded in the Greenhow
family Bible ( printed by Mark Baskett, London,
1768), included more details:
To that over ruling Providence, who had
through Life been my Aid, & support; I had
frequent recourse; I sought not his Assistance
in vain. He directed my Steps to Wmsburg;
And at the House of Mrs. Powell, & her
ameable Daughter Mrs. McGill; I was by
the Revd. Jno. Bracken, Rector of Bruton
Annotation in the Charlton family Bible that records the June 13, 1812, marriage of the Charlton's daughter, Mary Lorraine,
to Robert Greenhow, son of John Greenhow, at the home of Frances Powell [ formerly Wetherburn's Tavern] .
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
8
Parish, united in Marriage, on Saturday
second act. In the confusion that followed, the
Evening at about 8 Oclock the 13th ofJune
1812, to Mary Lorraine Charlton second
father and son got separated from Mary Ann,
who was killed along with seventy -one others,
Daughter of Francis & Mary Charlton late
including the governor.34
of that City; who was born in the town of
York 12 miles from Wmsburg, on
ton had moved in with her sister and brother -ni
AD 31
law. Letters addressed to her by that date were sent
This wedding took place in the building
known today as Wetherbum's Tavern. Formerly
owned by Mrs. Frances Powell's late husband
in care of Robert Greenhow in Richmond. In 1814,
the
of
By 1813, it is likely that Jane Catherine Charl-
two events occurred that brought both joy and upheaval to the household, although the sequence is
before she married Benjamin Powell in the late
uncertain. The family moved from a smaller house
on West Franklin Street into the large, two -story
1780s. After Benjamin's death in late 1790 or
brick home on Capitol and 10th streets built
early 1791, the widow Powell moved to the
building that had earlier served as a tavern.
Perhaps the wedding of Mary Lorraine Charl-
by Edmund Randolph, another Williamsburg-to -
William Rowsay, Frances inherited the property
ton to Robert Greenhow took place at Mrs.
Powell's house, but it is also possible that the
Richmond transplant, about ten years earlier.35
The birth of Francis John Seymour in mid June is documented in both the Charlton and
after their mother died. Frances, the daughter
Greenhow family Bibles. Jane Catherine recorded: "
My beloved Sister delivered of a fine
Son on Friday morning 1/ 4 past 5 June 10th
of Edmund Tabb of Yorktown who married
1814." Robert's recollection disagrees in two
William Rowsay of Williamsburg in 1779, was
probably a childhood friend or possibly even a
maternal relative of Mary Powell Charlton. By
points: "On Friday Morning at half past 5 Oclock
of June 17th 1814; My Dear Mary presented me
with a fine lovely, Healthfull Boy; dear pledge
the time their mother died, the Charlton sons
of our mutual Affection." Since her sister was
may have been apprenticed and living away
likely in the bedroom when Mary Lorraine gave
birth and Robert, as was customary at that time,
was probably in another part of the house, the
Charlton daughters moved in with Mrs. Powell
from home.32
On marrying 51- year -old Robert Greenhow,
Mary Lorraine —then in her early 20s— experi-
fifteen minute interval recorded in arrival time
enced an abrupt change in lifestyle. After grow-
is understandable. But who was likely correct in
ing up in a family who had experienced " limited
means" for many years, Mary Lorraine became
noting the birth date is uncertain 36
the wife of one of Richmond's most prosperous
Jane Catherine' s word] " baptism" [ Robert' s de-
residents.
Both Bibles also record the " christening"
scription], each giving slightly different details.
Soon after the capital moved to Richmond
Although Jane Catherine records the exact date
in 1780, four of Robert's stepbrothers moved to
the new seat of govemment. Robert remained in
and time as " 1/ 2 past 4 o' clock 24th July 1814,"
Robert's record is sufficiently detailed that the
Williamsburg and carried on the family business
scene could be acted out:
established by his father John Greenhow in the
mid -1750s and participated in civic affairs by
On Sunday Afternoon we took him pub lickly to the Altar of the newly erected
serving as mayor for several years and represent-
Monumental Church in this City; where
ing James City County in the state legislature
by Bishop Moore in the presence of the
for two terms.
then Assembled Congregation previous to
Although Robert and his wife and son did
not move to Richmond until 1810, he, like
Divine Service, he was by Baptism, under
his stepbrothers, began investing in real estate
in the 1780s. When he moved his family to
Richmond and opened a store there, he quickly
became involved in city govemment— serving
made a Member of Christs Church. We
first as a councilman and then as alderman and
Briggs pledging ourselves as Sponsors for
his education & bringing up in the Christian Faith which that we may be enabled
to do; God of his Infinite Mercy Grant:
recorder. In 1812, he became mayor.33
Robert's marriage to Mary Lorraine came just
over six months after the tragic death of his first
wife, Mary Ann Wills, whom he had married in
1786. The day after Christmas, Robert, his wife,
the Name of Francis, John, Seymour,
his Parents, His Affectionate Aunt Jane
Charlton, his Uncle Seymour, together
with Miss Maria Davis, &
Miss Peggy
37
and their 11- year old son, Robert, were attend-
This event must have been bittersweet for
Robert Greenhow, since his first wife died in
ing a performance at the new Richmond The-
the Richmond Theatre fire in 1811. The city, in
atre when fire broke out at the beginning of the
cooperation with a committee of citizens, ordered
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
9
that a church be built on the theater site as a me-
school, taught young African-American children
morial to the seventy- two residents of Virginia
to read, and edited several Baptist denominational papers. The Keelings had two children, a
who lost their lives in the conflagration. The
Monumental Church ( Episcopal), completed in
the spring of 1814, survives today. Owned by the
daughter named Mary Frances and a son named
Robert, bom in 1827 and killed during the Civil
Historic Richmond Foundation, the church is
War in 1862. Jane Catherine, who died in 1860,
currently undergoing restoration.38
Notations in both family Bibles show that
and Henry, who died in 1870, are both buried in
Shockoe Cemetery in Richmond.42
the Charlton and Greenhow families grew and
Less is know about the Charlton sons. Francis
diminished over the next few years. Jane Cathe-
died, probably in Williamsburg, at the age of 20
rine recorded on March 12, 1813: " my " beloved
in 1813. Seymour Powell moved to Norfolk,
Brother, Francis Charlton departed this life aged
never married, and died at the age of 25 in 1820.
20." Robert's brother Samuel " resigned his Soul
George Washington, who moved to Petersburg,
into the hands of his Creator" on February 14,
married a woman whose first name was Mary
1815. Just over a month later, Jane Catherine
sometime after 1825.
recorded the death of Mary Lorraine's baby on
to Richmond, was unmarried in 1825, and died
March 26, 1815.
there around the first of January in 1830.43
Thomas Powell moved
Robert wrote that his son Francis John
What do we know about how Mary Powell's
Seymour died on Easter Sunday, after being ill
sampler, her portrait, and her Bible survived?
for several months. His account reveals how
The portrait and Bible passed from Jane Cath-
heartrending this event was for the family: " In
the Evening, our much beloved Infant, Francis
John Seymour winged his Cherub Way to the
Seat prepared for him by the Death & Sufferings
erine through the Keeling family to the present
member of the Powell family and was reunited
two generations ago with the family that now
of our Dear Redeemer! — But his Inheritance, for
owns all three Charlton family pieces.44
ever durable, &
Greenhow family descendants gave the
Greenhow family Bible to the Rockefeller Library
in 2007. About fifty years earlier, Powell family descendants gave two volumes to Colonial
Williamsburg that formerly belonged to Mary
Lorraine Greenhow: The Book of Common Prayer,
published in Philadelphia in 1818 with " Mary L.
most transcendently Glorious,
his much
afflicted aunt and Godmother Jane, to whom he
duely reflected on by us his Parents, &
was dear as if he had been her own child." On
Christmas Day that year, Robert's stepbrother
Dr. James Greenhow died in Philadelphia.39
Mary Lorraine gave birth to four more children: "
owner. The sampler passed to an unknown
a fine, healthy, lovely Boy, perfect in
Greenhow" stamped in gilt on the front cover,
all its parts" born August 12, 1817, and bap-
and The Christian's Inheritance: A Collection of the
Promises of Scripture, Under Their Proper Heads by
tized James Washington several months later at
Monumental Church; " a perfect & well formed
Daughter," bom September 9, 1819, and baptized Mary Jane Charlton at the church October
27; followed by a stillborn daughter on November 23, 1821, and a premature, stillborn son on
June 20, 1826.4°
Samuel Clark, published in London in 1817 with
a bookplate that reads " Seymour P. Charlton's
Bible, presented to him by his affectionate sister,
Mary L. Greenhow, A.D. 1818." All three volumes may be examined in the Special Collections
section of the Rockefeller Library.
Their son James Washington died in Ten-
nessee in 1849. Mary Lorraine outlived her
husband, who died in 1840, by fifteen years. She
later moved to Winchester, where Mary Jane
and her husband, Hugh Lee, lived. Mary Jane
Lee lived into the early twentieth century, dying
in Baltimore in 1907. 41
Jane Catherine, who probably lived with her
Two recent books carry the story of Greenhow
women through the Civil War period: Ann Black-
man, Wild Rose: The True Story of a Civil
War Spy ( New York: Random House, 2005) and
Sheila R. Phipps, Genteel Rebel: The Life of Mary
Greenhow Lee ( Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press, 2004). Both are good reads.
sister and brother - in law for about ten years,
married the Rev. Henry Keeling of Richmond
about 1823. Born in Princess Anne County in
Pat acknowledges with thanks members of the
1795, he converted from the Episcopal to the
Rockefeller Library; Kim Ivey, Angelika Kuettner,
Department of Historical Research, staff of the
Baptist faith in 1816.
and Barbara Luck of the Department of Collections;
After spending three years at the Theological
Institution in Philadelphia, Reverend Keeling
Leslie K. Reinhardt, Jean Russo, and the individual
moved to Richmond. He served as pastor at sev-
exhibition and shared family papers and research
eral Richmond Baptist churches, then ran a girl's
notes about the Powell and Charlton families.
who loaned the sampler, portrait, and Bible for the
�10
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
1 Be sure to catch this exhibition, curated by Kim Ivey,
Colonial Williamsburg' s associate curator of textiles and
needlework, before it closes September 1, 2008.
2 Kevin P. Kelly to Darci Tucker, "A Possible Benjamin
Powell Genealogy," memorandum, August 9, 1994. Lacking
specific evidence about parentage of Benjamin Powell and
his brother Seymore, Kelly has drawn on a considerable
amount of circumstantial documentation. In this detailed
memorandum, he speculates that Benjamin and Seymore
were sons of Seymore Powell ( c. 1675 - c. 1745) and his first
wife, Elizabeth Tiplady ( c. 1675- 1720 +),
or his second wife,
Ann Jackson ( c. 1700 ? - ?).
3 Ibid.; York County Wills and Inventories 18, p. 495,
microfilm M -1. 9; York County Judgments and Orders 1,
p. 403, and 2, pp. 18, 87, and 420, microfilm M -1. 29; Virginia Gazette, 12 February 1762, p. 4, col. 1. County records
cited here and below, along with Williamsburg tax records,
are at the Library of Virginia; microfilm copies for these
15 York County Marriage Bonds, p. 78, microfilm
M -1. 43.
16 Virginia Gazette, 1 September 1738, p. 4, col. 2; 30
April 1752, p. 3, col, 2; ( Purdie and Dixon) 25 June 1767,
p. 3, col. 1; ( Dixon and Hunter) 2 October 1779, p. 2,
col., 2.
17 Although the introduction does not name Francis
Charlton, the text mentions that Johnson hired young
clerks to assist him in London. Jacob M. Price, ed., Joshua
Johnson' s Letterbook, 1771 - 1774; Letters from a Merchant in
London w His Partners in Maryland ( London, 1979), xxiii;
Edward C. Papenfuse, In Pursuit of Profit: The Annapolis
Merchants in the Era of the American Revolution, 1763 - 1805
Baltimore, 1975), 55- 61, 73 - 75, 176.
18 Ibid., 176.
19 The Holy Bible Containing The Old Testament and
The New ( Oxford, 1782), private collection. ( Hereafter,
Charlton Family Bible).
records and records cited below at John D. Rockefeller
20 Papenfuse, In Pursuit, 176; Letterbook of William
Library Special Collections, The Colonial Williamsburg
Foundation ( Hereafter, Rockefeller Library).
Lee, 1783 - 1787, p. 114, Virginia Historical Society, micro-
4 York County Land Causes, 1746 - 1769, pp. 32 -34,
microfilm M -1. 44; Guardian Accounts 1, p. 291, microfilm
M -1. 42; Deeds 8, pp. 64 -67, 286 - 288, microfilm M -1. 16.
5 York County Wills and Inventories 20, p. 154, microfilm M -1. 11.
film M - 9.
82.
21 York County Personal Property Tax Lists, 17821809, M- 1169. 9.
22 Alice Bohmer Rudd, Shockoe Hill Cemetery, Richmond, Virginia: Register of Interments, April 10, 1822- December 31, 1950 ( Washington, D.C., 1960), 8, lists interment of
6 Linda Rowe, " Women and Education in Eighteenth -
Thomas P. Charlton, age 44, on January 3, 1830; Charlton
Century Virginia," Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter 23
Summer 2002): 23 - 29; York County Wills and Inventories 22, pp. 534 -535 and 546- 548, microfilm M -1. 11.
Family Bible gives ages at death for Francis and Seymour
7 Charles B. Cross Jr., ed., Memoirs of Helen Calvert
Maxwell Read ( Chesapeake, Va., 1970), 39.
8 Mary Powell sampler, private collection; York County
Wills and Inventories 22, pp. 534 - 535, M -1. 11.
9 Ibid.; Virginia Legislative Petitions, 1784 - 1858, petition dated May 10, 1780, Library of Virginia, M- 1051. 1.
10 W. A. Low, " Merchant and Planter Relations in
Post -Revolutionary Virginia, 1783- 1789," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 61 ( 1953): 308 - 309; James F.
Shepherd, " British America and the Atlantic Economy,"
in Ronald Hoffman, John J. McCusker, Russell R. Menard,
and Peter J. Albert, eds., The Economy of Early America:
The Revolutionary Period, 1763 - 1790 ( Charlottesville, Va.,
1988), 19 - 23.
11 Deposition of Sarah Osborn, quoted in John C.
Dann, ed., The Revolution Remembered: Eyewitness Accounts
Charlton. Jane Catherine Charlton appears to be about 3
in the Peale portrait.
23 Lillian B. Miller, ed., The Selected Papers of Charles
Willson Peale and His Family, Volume 1, Charles Willson
Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735 - 1791 ( New
Haven, Conn., 1983), 561 - 562, 637. Peale portrait of Mrs.
Mary Powell Charlton and her daughter Jane Catherine,
private collection.
24 Charlton Family Bible.
25 J. C. Charlton statement; Mary A. Stephenson, " Orlando Jones Historical Report, Block 10, Building 16a," The
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Library Research Report
Series, no. 1212, 1960, 12, Rockefeller Library; Robert Anderson to John B. Clopton, August 4, 1816, asks the Principal
Assessor for District 17 of Virginia to record a change in the
ownership of several pieces of Williamsburg property, including: " One House & lot belonging to the representatives of
Francis Charlton ( residing in Richmond) I wish changed
from my name to the names of the proper owners. This
of the War for Independence ( Chicago, 1980), 244 -246;
house [ no lot number identified] is valued at $ 1000," Robert
Richard M. Ketchum, Victory at Yorktown: The Campaign
Anderson Letterbook No. 3, Virginia Historical Society, microfilm M - 2. 2; Lyon G. Tyler, Williamsburg, the Old Colonial
8
Capital ( Richmond, Va., 1907), frontispiece labeled " Map of
Williamsburg about 1790, from the original in the College
Library," shows the name " Charlton" on Lot 16.
that Won the Revolution ( New York, 2004),
242 - 246;
Emmy E. Werner, In Pursuit of Liberty: Coming of Age in the
American Revolution ( Westport, Conn., 2006), 83 - 84.
12 York County Wills and Inventories 22, pp. 534 -535,
microfilm M -1. 11.
13 Ibid., 546 - 548.
14 York County Marriage Bonds, p. 353, M -1. 43; Jane
26 York County Wills and Inventories 23, pp. 506 -509,
microfilm M -1. 12.
27 Ibid.
Catherine Charlton statement in Papers relating to John
28 Virginia Gazette, and General Advertiser, March 7,
Seabrook versus Robert Wilkins, suit related to a Negro
1798, p. 4, col. 4, microfilm M- 1152. 1; J. C. Charlton
woman sold by Jane C. Charlton to Seabrook, Henrico
Superior Court, March 17, 1820, Robert Anderson Papers
A 3, Estate Papers, folder 144 Mary Charlton Estate Papers,
1813 - 1825, Rockefeller Library ( Hereafter, J. C. Charlton
statement); York County Land Tax Lists, 1782 - 1831, microfilm M- 1169. 7.
statement.
29 Williamsburg Personal Property Tax Lists, 17831861, microfilm M -1. 47; Charlton Family Bible.
30 Robert Anderson assisted Jane Catherine Charlton
in administering Mary Charlton's estate, which was com-
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
11
plicated by the fact that neither the estates of Seymour
and Jane Powell nor Francis Charlton had been fully
settled when Mary Charlton died. Robert Anderson Papers,
A 3 Estate Papers, folders 142 - 145 Mary Charlton Estate
Papers, 1794 - 1835, and folder 146 Seymour Powell Estate
a virtual tour of the church during its restoration, go to
www.historicrichmond.com.
39 Charlton Family Bible; Greenhow Family Bible.
40 Greenhow Family Bible.
41 Rudd, Shockoe Hill Cemetery, 20, lists interment of
Papers, 1776 - 1831, Rockefeller Library.
31 Charlton Family Bible; Holy Bible ( London, 1768)
bound together with the Book of Common Prayer ( London,
1766) with annotations made by John Greenhow, Robert
Greenhow, and others, Rockefeller Library Special Collections
BX5145. A.4 17661 ( Hereafter Greenhow Family Bible).
32 Mary A. Stephenson, "Wetherbum's Tavem Historical
Report, Block 9, Building 31," The Colonial Williamsburg
Foundation Library Research Report Series, no. 1169, 1965,
51 - 57; Virginia Gazette ( Dixon) 13 November 1779, p. 2,
col. 1; York County Wills and Inventories 21, pp. 96- 97,
microfilm M -1. 11.
33 Sheila R. Phipps, Genteel Rebel: The Life of Mary
Greenhow Lee ( Baton Rouge, La., 2004), 14- 25, 33.
Robert Greenhow on July 2, 1840; Phipps, Genteel Rebel,
53- 54, 74, 219.
42 Revd. Henry Keeling and wife In Account with
Robert Anderson,
1811 - 1831,
Anderson Letterbook 3,
p. 37. Until 1823 Anderson's accounts had been with
Miss Jane Charlton; entry for Henry Keeling, 1795 - 1870,
in George Braxton Taylor, Virginia Baptist Ministers, Fifth
Series, 1902 - 1914 with Supplement ( Lynchburg, Va., 1915),
504 -507; Notes on the Powell, Charlton, and Keeling
families compiled in September 1952 by aunt of the current
owner of the sampler, portrait, and Bible, 6 - 10.
43 Charlton Family Bible; Phipps, Genteel Rebel, 4
and 200; Indenture between Thomas P. Powell of the
34 Ibid., 27 - 28; Greenhow Family Bible.
city of Richmond and Robert Anderson of Williamsburg,
14 January 1824, York County Deeds 9, p. 404 -405; Copy
35 Anderson Letterbook 3; Phipps, Genteel Rebel, 19,
of Injunction: James H. Hubbard versus Robert Anderson,
28, 35.
1825, Robert Anderson Papers, A 3 Estate Papers, Folder
36 Charlton Family Bible; Greenhow Family Bible.
37 Ibid.
38 Phipps, Genteel Rebel, 30 -31; for more informa-
146 Seymour Powell Estate Papers, 1776 - 1831, Rockefeller
Library; Rudd, Shockoe Hill Cemetery, 8.
44 Notes on the Powell, Charlton, and Keeling families,
1- 47.
tion about the Monumental Church, including a link to
New Orleans and the American Revolution
by Mark Couvillon
Mark is a historical interpreter in Public Sites and a native of New Orleans.
By the time hostilities broke out between the
granted Pollock free trade in New Orleans, and
American colonies and England, New Orleans
by 1776, he had become one of the wealthiest and
most influential businessmen in the city.
had been a Spanish possession for twelve years.
Founded by Sieur Bienville in 1718 to maintain
Congress looked upon Spain, as it had upon
French control of the Mississippi River, New Or-
France, as a possible ally in the war against England. And the port city of New Orleans, situated
leans became the capital of Louisiana in 1722.
Though spared from invasion during the
French and Indian War ( 1756- 1763),
near the mouth of the Mississippi, seemed the
New
most likely avenue for aid from that country,
Orleans and all French territory west of the
especially if the British attempted to blockade
Mississippi River was turned over to Spain in
the Chesapeake.
1762 by King Louis XV in part to compensate
his Bourbon cousin King Carlos III for the loss
to open a line of communication with Spanish
of East and West Florida to England. 1
Louisiana occurred in 1776, when Gen. Charles
The first serious attempt by the Americans
Almost six years passed, however, before
Lee, commander of the southern forces, sent
Spain officially took control of its new territory.
Virginia officers George Gibson and William
The first Spanish governor to arrive in New Or-
Lynn from Fort Pitt to New Orleans disguised as
leans had been driven out by the French in 1768.
traders to seek aid for the Revolution.
Not until 1769, with the arrival of a large mili-
tary force under the command of Gov. Alejandro
Arriving in New Orleans in late August,
after a 2, 000 -mile journey down the Ohio and
O'Reilly, did Spain gain control of Louisiana.2
Mississippi rivers, Gibson sought Pollock's as-
Following Governor O'Reilly to New Orleans
sistance to present Lee's letter ( which had been
from Cuba was fellow Irishman Oliver Pollock.
endorsed by the Virginia committee of safety)
Pollock had immigrated to Pennsylvania in 1760
to the governor. Would Spain open a commer-
at the age of 23. Two years later, he began his ca-
cial alliance with the colonies in exchange for
reer as a merchant and moved to Havana to trade
American help in reclaiming various English
with the Spanish in the West Indies. O'Reilly
settlements in Florida?
�12
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Govemor Unzaga ( Luis Unzaga, a native of
take Mobile and Pensacola was raised in Con-
Malaga, Spain, accompanied O' Reilly to Louisiana in 1769 to help organize the regiment of
gress but died due to lack of troops and funds.
Later that year, however, the secret committee
Louisiana. He was appointed govemor in late
of commerce sent Capt. James Willing from Fort
1769) responded that he could not grant an
Pitt to " capture whatever British property he
might meet with" on his way to gather supplies
open
commercial
alliance
without
permission
from Madrid first. But in a measure of good
that had been sent to New Orleans from Cuba at
faith — doubt spurred on by news of Amerno
ica's Declaration of Independence, a copy of
the request of Charles Lee. These items included
which Gibson had brought with him —
Unzaga
sold Pollock 10, 000 pounds of gunpowder from
gunpowder.
Spanish stores. Gibson, acting as " merchant,"
lead, medicine, clothing, and 2, 000 barrels of
Willing also brought with him a letter notifying Pollock of his appointment as Congress' s
made the purchase with a draft of 1, 850 Spanish
commercial agent in New Orleans —a position
milled dollars upon the council of Virginia .
3
he already held for Virginia. On his way down
the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, Willing and his
Lieutenant Lynn took the majority of the
powder and supplies upriver to Fort Henry at
Wheeling in western Virginia. Captain Gibson
men plundered
and raided
the
plantations of
every British subject they came upon. They also
sailed to Philadelphia with the remainder of
captured the strategic British posts at Natchez
supplies and a letter to Congress from Pollock,
and Manchac, which succeeded in temporarily
pledging his support for the Revolution. This im-
crippling the British forces on the Mississippi
portant shipment came in time to prevent forts
and interrupting the flow of supplies from Nat-
Pitt and Henry from falling into enemy hands.
chez to Pensacola.
General Lee' s suggestion of ridding the Brit-
While in New Orleans, Willing received
ish from West Florida was appealing to Unzaga,
permission from Governor de Galvez to hold a
who viewed the English posts at Manchac ( a
public auction to dispose of the captured goods.
small town in Tangipahoa Parish, Louisiana.
The sale eventually netted the Americans more
Manchac Post or Fort Bute was established in
than $ 62, 000.
1763 at the junction of the Iberville River with
the Mississippi. It remained an important Brit-
Willing's victories were short lived, however.
In response to the seizure of British property, the
ish military and trading post until captured by
governor of West Florida sent British forces to
Spanish forces in September 1779), Mobile, and
retake Manchac and Natchez, along with orders
Pensacola as both financial and military threats
to block further trade between America and
to Spain's holdings in the Gulf of Mexico. It was
Spain on the river.4
also appealing to his king.
On January 2, 1778, Gov. Patrick Henry
Unzaga soon received word from Madrid that
sent Col. George Rogers Clark on a mission to
he was to continue to give aid to the Americans
recapture the Northwest Territory for Virginia
and that he should begin by shipping whatever
by capturing key British posts north of the
Ohio. Henry authorized Clark to apply to the
surplus he had on hand. He also learned that
Havana, Cuba, would be the base of operations
for supplies destined for the American colonies
commander of Fort Pitt for the powder and lead
he needed, " which Captain Lynn brought from
and that most of the supplies would go through
New Orleans."
New Orleans. Madrid cautioned Unzaga to
make sure all activities were done covertly and
kept the appearance of Spanish neutrality at
all times.
Henry further authorized Clark
to draw on Pollock for the money he might need
during the expedition.
Clark soon found the continental currency
was valueless in that part of the country, and
In February 1777, 30- year -old Don Bernardo
he began making drafts on Pollock for the pur-
de Galvez replaced the aging Unzaga as gover-
chase of supplies. In a short time these exceeded
nor of Louisiana. A friend of the Americans, one
50,000 Spanish dollars. Pollock met these drafts
of his first acts as govemor was to permit the in-
even though the Virginia government had been
habitants of his colony to trade with the United
unable to supply him with cash.
States. Like his predecessor, de Galvez worked
In addition to advancing credit, Pollock sent
closely with Pollock in keeping the Americans
2, 000 pounds ( "a
supplied with the necessary materiel of war.
plies to Clark in September 1778. An additional
Without the help of those two men, the war in
the west may have ended much differently for
500 pounds of powder followed three months
the United States.
In July 1777, a proposal submitted by Col.
George Morgan and Col. Benedict Arnold to
ton ") of powder and other sup-
later. By the end of 1781, Pollock had advanced
139, 739 to Clark and his officers.
According to Clark, his efforts to secure and
hold the Illinois country would have failed if
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
the merchants from whom he had purchased
13
If successful,
the
movement would split
goods had not been reimbursed by Pollock in
silver at face value. Virtually unknown today,
Pollock's effort in financing the Revolution was
the continent from the Americans as well as
no less important than that of his Philadelphia
colonies if independence was achieved.
counterpart Robert Morris, who is regarded as
the financier of the American Revolution."
Fortunately for the United States, de Galvez
struck first. On January 28, 1780, he led a flotilla
Both men played a crucial role in keeping the
of twelve ships and 754 men to attack Mobile.
Americans afloat —a role that cost Pollock his
fortune and landed him in debtor's prison.
Met by de Galvez's army, reinforced by 1, 400
Not all of the New Orleans expeditions
the Spanish. Moreover, establishing such firm
claims would limit the growth of the American
soldiers from Havana, the British surrendered
the port town on March 9.
ended in success. There were numerous British
This victory earned de Galvez a promotion
spies in the city, and the Willing expedition
resulted in increased British presence along the
river, making travel more dangerous. In 1778,
Governor Henry ( " Patricio Enrique," as the
to field marshal and gave him command of all
Spanish translated his name) sent Col. David
Aided by a French squadron under St. Simon,
Rogers to New Orleans with a small force to de-
de Galvez's force of 7, 000 laid siege to the Brit-
liver some official letters to Governor de Galvez
ish port on March 9, 1781. After two months,
and to collect any supplies that might be wait-
the last British port on the Gulf of Mexico fell
ing for Virginia. Upon his return to Fort Pitt,
to the Spanish.
Spanish operations in America. The greatest
triumph of his expedition was the capture of
Pensacola, the British capital of West Florida.
Rogers's flotilla met with disaster. Ambushed
At the same time de Galvez was recaptur-
by a British -led Indian party near present -day
Cincinnati, Rogers, along with most of his men,
ing West Florida for Spain, Spanish forces at
St. Louis followed his orders and attacked the
were killed and the two keel boats laden with
British - eld post at St. Joseph in present -day
h
goods and money were captured.
Michigan, where stockpiles of enemy supplies
and munitions were stored. The sacking and
burning of St. Joseph ended all future British
On June 21, 1779, Spain officially declared
war on England by forming an alliance with
France. Spanish subjects around the world were
threats on St. Louis and the upper Mississippi
ordered by Carlos III to fight the English wherever they found them.
River. Defeated in the north and the south by
De Galvez had prepared for this moment
for months by spying on British posts in West
Florida and building up his army. Fear of a British attack on New Orleans as well as the disruption of Spanish shipping in the Gulf of Mexico
Spain, Great Britain abandoned its plan to hem
in the American colonies from the west.
Today a statue of Gen. Bernardo de Galvez
stands in Washington, D.C., near the State De-
partment building as a reminder of the debt we
owe to him, to Spain, and to New Orleans.
led him to make a preemptive strike.5
Governor de Galvez's first objective was to
1 The secret Treaty of Fontainebleau between France
secure the Mississippi River by capturing British
and Spain was ratified on November
posts above New Orleans. On August 27, 1779,
months before the Treaty of Paris was signed.
13,
1762, three
de Galvez led his army ninety miles up the Mis-
2 In 1775, New Orleans boasted a population of some
sissippi River to Fort Bute at Manchac. Unaware
5, 000 inhabitants, mostly of French and African descent.
The original layout of the city, today's " French Quarter,"
was surrounded by an earthen palisade with a ditch.
O'Reilly ( originally Alexander O' Reilly) was one of many
that a state of war existed between England and
Spain, the confused British commander surren-
dered the post on September 7. On September 20,
Irish expatriots in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
de Galvez took Baton Rouge from the British and
who left Ireland to serve in Catholic forces elsewhere. In
negotiated the surrender of Natchez.
the eighteenth century there were several Irish regiments
serving in Spain.
He returned to New Orleans a hero, having
captured 1, 000 British soldiers, eight boats, and
430 leagues of land. Most important, he had
closed the Mississippi River to enemy traffic.
In early 1780, Great Britain devised a plan
to encircle the rebelling colonies by executing
a pincer movement in the west. The British
planned to invade from the north out of Detroit,
reclaiming everything lost to Clark, while at the
same time dispatching another force up the Mississippi River from Pensacola.
3 Governor Unzaga ordered the American Declaration
of Independence read in New Orleans on August 20, 1776,
By beat of Drum."
4 Captain Willing was captured by the British while
returning to Philadelphia by sea and made a prisoner of war.
In 1781, he was exchanged for Col. Henry Hamilton.
5 After receiving word that Spain had declared war
on England, Lord Germain ordered British Gen. Frederick
Haldimand, governor of Canada, to attack New Orleans
and reduce the Spanish ports on the Mississippi River.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
tell you, tides and the phases of the moon are
still powerful influences on marine fishing ( and
Go Fish!
fishermen).
Visit any fishing website, and the
subjects of moon phases and tides will eventu-
by Jim Gay
ally surface.
Jim is a journeyman in Historic Foodways in the
Department of Historic Trades.
In the eighteenth century when winter
turned to spring, Williamsburg's dining room
tables reflected the new season. Besides experi-
encing the arrival of fresh vegetables and spring
lambs, people knew that, finally, after months of
scarcity, fish from the Chesapeake Bay and local
fresh waters were active again after a long winter
of dormancy. Spawning runs of herring promised
replenishment of salted provisions for the poor,
while
warmer
weather
provided
opportunities
While there is debate about the effects of the
moon and tides on freshwater fishing, there is
no debate about their effects on marine fishing.
The general advice is to fish the rising tide on a
daily basis; the new and full moons will bring on
the strongest tides and best fishing monthly.
In a world without refrigeration, eighteenth -
century consumers had to be aware of the cycles
of tides to be able to buy the freshest fish available. Purchasing accounts even noted occasional
Sunday transactions .3
William Sparrow, a servant to Lord Botetourt, maintained accounts at the Governor's
for outdoor fish feasts for the wealthy. Except
Palace that record daily purchasing data for
for ham, tidewater Virginia's signature food was
foodstuffs, including fish and seafood ( oysters,
from the bay.
In August 1774, Philip Vickers Fithian, tutor
to the Robert Carter family, wrote, "Each Wednes-
purchases were the most numerous in the sum-
day and Saturday we dine on Fish all the summer,
always plenty of Rock, Perch, & Crabs, & often
crabs,
and
turtles).
In general, generic " fish"
mer and fall. On thirty occasions, the account
simply noted " fish" rather than a species. We
Sheeps -Head and Trout! "1 And the tradition
can presume that " fish" included croaker, spot,
spotted trout, flounder, bluefish, butterfish, and
continues: When Queen Elizabeth II dined at the
drum —fish that are still the least expensive to
Governor's Palace in May 2007, she had rockfish
purchase today. None of these fish was caught
in deep water. There was no mention of tuna,
with lemon sauce and Virginia ham!
In the same month, over 200 years earlier, the
purchasing accounts for the Governor's Palace
showed large quantities of rockfish representing
swordfish, dolphin, or scallops.
As stated, rockfish was highly prized. Eleven
purchases were made, mostly in the winter and
over half the total expense for all fish and sea-
spring. On two occasions, as many as thirteen
food. In addition to rockfish ( today also called
rockfish were purchased at the same time. An-
stripers or sea bass), the accounts also mentioned trout, drum, oysters, crabs, sturgeon, eels,
meaning several fish per string.
turtles, and catfish.2 Some of these provisions
most likely went to feed the servants and slaves.
The bay provided for rich and poor alike.
As modern people living in an urban industrial society, we are mostly immune to the
influences of weather and seasons. We can eat
pretty much anything we want, from wherever
we want, whenever we want it. Not so for the
people of the eighteenth century. In addition
to the seasons, they also had to contend with
tides and celestial events. As any fisherman will
other time, Sparrow indicated " two strings,"
While available
year- round, oysters were
purchased at the Palace primarily in the fall
and spring and represented the second most
numerous transactions. Sparrow bought oysters
twenty - ive times during the twelve -month pef
riod from July 1769 to June 1770. Since oysters
were huge, they were rarely purchased with
other seafood. Likewise, crabs were generally
purchased separately; perhaps because they were
labor intensive. However, on occasion, Sparrow
also
purchased " soft crabs" (
what we
now
call
�15
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
soft- shelled
crabs ").
Other seafood and fish
were bought sporadically during the period.
Eels, turtles, and sturgeon were noted on a
regular basis.4 Unlike fish, eels and turtles are air
was cheaper than an equivalent amount of pork.
A] barrel of fish costing 7. D. ( pence)
goes
as far with laborers as 200 lb. of pork costing
14. D. "10 In Virginia, pigs more or less raised
breathers. Freshness could be assured simply by
keeping eels in a bucket or tub of water. Turtles,
themselves in the forest so Jefferson' s observa-
on the other hand, would have presented a
bigger challenge but could have been imported
salted fish in the eighteenth century.
alive from the West Indies. The Virginia Gazette
George
tion clearly illustrates the economical nature of
A Polish visitor to Mount Vernon reported
Washington's
slaves
were
rationed
listed ships arriving from the West Indies car-
twenty salted herring a month along with a
rying shipments of turtles.5 Richard Bradley,
peck of corn each week for an adult, half that
a British cookbook author, claimed, "
for children. They were not permitted to raise
turtles
weighed up to 200 pounds and were `frequently
chickens, pigs, ducks, or geese. " 11
brought to England in Tubs of Sea Water, and
Mary Randolph's method of curing herring is
will keep alive a long time. "' Sparrow' s accounts
listed six turtles weighing 200 pounds. In the
colonies, Mary Randolph directed her readers to
quite economical. She recommends taking the
kill the turtle at night in the winter and in the
morning in the summer. "6
brine left over from the " winter stock of beef to
the fishing place, and when the seine is hauled
pick out the largest herrings ...
and throw
them alive into the brine; let them remain for
ians was the sturgeon. The Atlantic sturgeon
24 hours" then drain and salt them in barrels. 12
Another method of keeping fish uses vinegar
lives in saltwater most of the year but comes into
instead of salt. If the size of the fish was larger
rivers to spawn from May until September. The
than a household needed, the highly perish-
largest Atlantic sturgeon caught in the Chesa-
able leftover was pickled in vinegar in a pro-
peake Bay was fourteen feet long and weighed
811 pounds! 7 Besides the food value, the by-
recognize this as escabeche, available in many
Another large sea creature familiar to Virgin-
products of sturgeon included the skin, which
could be fashioned into leather, and the bladder,
which produced a pure gelatin called isinglass
used to clarify jellies and beer. According to the
Association for the Preservation of Virginia An-
tiquities ( APVA) website, sturgeon and turtles
cess called caveaching. Modem foodies might
high -end gourmet restaurants. Essentially, it is
fish that is floured and lightly fried, then put
into vinegar. The acidic vinegar actually finishes
cooking" the fish.
Mary Randolph's recipe directs cooks to put
were the most important food sources for Jame-
the fish " into a pot with chopped onion between
the layers, take as much vinegar as will cover
stown survivors of the starving time.8
it, mix it with some oil, pounded mace and
The seasonal limitation of this abundant
resource
made
preservation
methods
critical.
whole black pepper, pour it on and stop the pot
closely." The oil will eventually separate and
For fish, salt was the primary preservative. The
ancient Egyptians were probably the first civili-
float on top to form an airtight barrier. "This is a
zation to preserve fish with salt.9 The Sparrow
and ready addition to a dinner or supper. "13
accounts show salted fish being purchased by
the hundredweight, probably for the slaves on
food in the period was oyster ice cream. While it
the property.
Thomas Jefferson' s purchases for " labourers"
may sound like something you would eat only if
you lost a bet, it is actually quite tasty and made
included barrels of salted herring and shad. " The
perfect sense in the context of the eighteenth
salted fish were rationed to the Negros; two fish
were considered a ration." Jefferson mentioned
century. If the queen had visited the Governor's
Palace in the eighteenth century instead of the
in his farm book that salted fish by the barrel
twenty- first, she might well have been served
very convenient article, as it makes an excellent
Perhaps one of the most unusual uses of sea-
�16
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
oyster ice cream. Essentially, it was frozen oyster
soup, unsweetened, with the oysters strained out
4 Sparrow " Accounts."
5 Virginia Gazette, Purdie and Dixon, August 11, 1768,
before freezing.14 Imagine having it served to
p. 2, col. 3.
you as the first course instead of a hot soup in
the month of July!
Imagine the luxury of eating anything frozen
and 1828), ed. Karen Hess ( Columbia: University of South
in the summer and the ridiculous amount of
labor involved to cut up a frozen pond in the
winter and store it in an icehouse. Perhaps the
irony is that the oysters that were strained out of
the soup might have fed someone in the kitchen
or even the slave " labourer" who cut the ice in
the first place. As was said in the beginning, the
bay provided for rich and poor alike.
1 Hunter D. Farish, ed., Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 1773 - 1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion
Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, Va., 1993).
2 Lorena S. Walsh, " Provisioning Early American
Towns. The Chesapeake: A Multidiscplinary Case Study,
Final Performance Report" ( 1997), 45; and William Spar-
row, "Purchasing Accounts for the Governor's Palace."
3 For historical calendars indicating days of the week,
visit http: / www.hf.rim.or.jp /--kaji / al /cal.cgi ?
/
c
1770
6 Mary Randolph, The Virginia House -Wife ( 1824, 1825,
Carolina Press, 1984), 297, 230.
7 Chesapeake Bay Program website, www.chesapeakebay.
net /info / tlantic_sturgeon. cfm, last accessed December 29,
a
2007.
8 Ibid.; and Jamestown Rediscovery website, www.apva.
org /exhibit /eats. html last accessed December 29, 2007.
9 Mark K. Kurlansky, Salt, A World History ( New York:
Penguin Putnam Inc., 2002), 38.
10 Edwin M. Betts, ed. Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book, with
Commentary and Relevant Extracts from Other Writings ( Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 187.
11 James Trager, The Food Chronology ( New York:
Henry Holt and Company), 191.
12 Randolph, The Virginia House- Wife, 21.
13 Ibid., 103.
14 Ibid., 175.
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
17
respectable folk as producers of five to six hogsheads — and each weighed 1, 000 pounds, then
he earned above £ 40 sterling for his trouble.
Not bad, but hardly the wealth one would hope.
This may be why so many tidewater planters
began transitioning to production of wheat, a
much more stable commodity and better for the
maintenance of worn- out soils.
To summarize for guests, an easy -to- explain
statement would be that a good, average price
for tobacco in the eighteenth century was 20
shillings per hundredweight and that a hogshead
weighing 1, 000 pounds would bring around £ 10
sterling. ( David Nielsen and Wayne Randolph,
Rural Trades)
Q& A
Question: What was the price of a hogshead of
tobacco? ( from
a recent IIE class)
Answer: The price of tobacco was largely con-
trolled by European agents. At the end of the
colonial period, 90 percent of the nearly 100
million pounds of tobacco exported annually
from Virginia and Maryland was reexported
from British ports to continental Europe.
Duties imposed by the Virginia general assembly and the costs of inspection, transport,
and doing business with middlemen had secondary impacts on the price. Parliamentary taxation
played a role, but tobacco slated for reexport to
the continent was exempt from these duties.
Thus buyers in Europe had the real control.
The price a planter received depended on how
good his crop year was. In a bad year, such as when
a hailstorm slashed his leaves, the planter likely
got less than market price for his crop. Prices also
varied by region. Sweet- scented tobacco, which
could only be grown in certain parts of Virginia,
often fetched a higher price than oronoco, the
type grown around Williamsburg.
Between
1770 and
1775,
tobacco prices
fluctuated between 16 shillings /8 pence and 25
shillings per hundredweight ( 112 pounds). The
average weight of a hogshead of tobacco in 1771
was 1, 066 pounds. Production per laborer, af-
fected by variable circumstances, was about 800
to 1, 000 pounds per season.
Let's say an average planter's hogshead is
worth 20 shillings per hundredweight. That
brings him something over 2 pence per pound.
We see many references to planters getting
8, but also £ 6, £ 10, or sometimes £ 12, for a
thousand pound hogshead of tobacco, depend-
ing on the quality.
If a planter produced five hogsheads of
par rated
Patrick Henry referred to
tobacco —
Question: An interpreter suggested that Peyton Randolph' s Masonic membership would
have perhaps influenced his religious beliefs
and led him to support the Rev. Samuel Hen-
ley in his controversial and unsuccessful bid
for appointment as minister of Bruton Parish
in 1773. Would becoming a Freemason have
impacted one' s religious beliefs in such a way?
submitted by Julie Richter)
Answer: No. Men who became Freemasons
were likely tolerant of different religious points
of view or perhaps were themselves dissenters
from established churches. That's not to say that
no one ever changed his religious views after
joining the Masons but rather that prospective
members would have known the Masons to be a
broadly tolerant organization.
Peyton Randolph came from a religious
background of a liberal cast with elements of
rational or Enlightenment thinking. His father,
Sir John, noted in his will that he had been
called " deist
heretic and schismatic" going
on to explain his adoration for the " Supreme
Being[,] the first cause of all things," and his
belief that Jesus was sent to save mankind from
superstition and ignorance.
Peyton Randolph supported Reverend Hen-
ley who had publicly aired his doubts about traditional Christian belief in the Trinity and the
divinity of Christ. The other candidate, John
Bracken, supported by the religiously conservative traditional Anglican Robert Carter Nicho-
las, got the appointment. But the contest for
the Bruton pulpit cannot be judged on religious
grounds alone. The long history of hostility between the Randolph and Nicholas families must
be taken into account. ( Linda Rowe, historian,
Department of Historical Research)
�18
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Question: What were the chief challenges
Question: How was Virginia' s participation
confronting the Virginia state government dur-
in the French and
ing the Revolution?
submitted by Kathy Lantz, orientation interpreter,
Department of Orientation and Guest Service)
Answer: Virginia's major difficulties between
1776 and 1783 revolved around its efforts to
respond to war related contingencies. The Gen-
eral Assembly was never able to establish a truly
efficient system for recruiting the state' s quota of
soldiers for the Continental Army. The legislature refused to enlist slaves and could not offer
a bounty appealing enough to attract volunteers.
The assembly attempted a draft, but soon abandoned it when it proved highly unpopular.
Virginia had an equally difficult time raising
the materials necessary to supply both Continental and state troops. Although the state
offered incentives for the production of such
scarce items as salt, gunpowder, and weapons,
Indian War financed?
Answer: It wasn't easy. While Gov. Robert
Dinwiddie felt compelled to challenge what
he saw as French encroachment on Virginia's
western territory in early 1754, average Virginians were unconcerned. This stemmed from the
perception that only the handful of wealthy land
speculators who formed the Ohio Company had
any stake at all in Virginia's western lands.
The militias in Frederick and Augusta counties had flouted Dinwiddie's initial order to mo-
bilize for a campaign, prompting the governor
to call for a volunteer force instead. The House
of Burgesses, already at odds with the governor
over his earlier attempt to institute a fee of one
the state's economy lacked the resources to
pistole ( a Spanish gold coin) for his signature on
shift into manufacturing ( although some small
land grants, dragged their feet when asked to
successes were made in areas such as gun- and
cannon making).
Moreover, the state did not set up a permanent quartermaster corps until 1781, and it was
not until 1780 that the legislature established a
fixed system of county quotas for clothing and
provisions. After Cornwallis invaded Virginia,
the legislature authorized the executive to im-
press necessary military supplies. Even then, such
actions produced strong protest and opposition.
One major problem that contributed to most
of Virginia's other difficulties was the state's
appropriate money for a standing force to guard
the forks of the Ohio.
Dinwiddie shamed the burgesses into action
by appealing to their patriotism. "[ M] uch art
was used to get one penny for the defence of the
Country," wrote burgess Landon Carter. Carter
attributed the reluctance of the legislators to
their sense that many of their constituents were
too poor" to pay the taxes for such an expedition. In the end and by what Carter called a
side Glance," the burgesses approved a military
supply bill for £ 10,000, which they called " An
inability to raise the revenue to fund wartime
Act for the encouragement and protection of
activities. Virginia first resorted to an issue of
the settlers upon the waters of Mississippi."
paper notes backed by taxes, then soon followed
that with interest- bearing notes.
Dinwiddie called this appropriation " a mere
trifle"
and found it " so clogg' d with unrea-
The state attempted to pay off these loans by
instituting a general poll tax, as well as by assessing the value of land and slaves. Unfortunately,
the need for funds ran ahead of the state's ability
to raise revenue. By 1779 the assembly had in-
the Prerogative" that he considered vetoing it.
Particularly irksome to the governor was the
bill's establishment of a military appropriations
creased the poll tax, introduced a tariff, and lev-
be spent and to control all war related disburse-
ied a special tax payable in grain commodities.
Through this period the value of currency
fell. Currency depreciation and subsequent price
inflation further undercut the state's ability to
purchase military supplies.
The financial crisis in 1779 led to confiscation
of loyalist property, an action Virginia had been
reluctant to take. Finally, in 1781, the legislature
repudiated its paper money and demanded that
taxes be paid in hard money. Virginia, escaping bankruptcy, weathered the financial storm
in spite of fiscal caution. ( Kevin Kelly, historian,
Department of Historical Research)
sonable regulat[ion]s and Encroachm[ en] ts on
committee to decide how the £ 10, 000 should
ments, both civil and military.
Under the watchful eyes of the fourteen
gentlemen ( ten from the lower house and four
from the council) who made up this " Country
Committee," as it was called, Dinwiddie set
about raising six fifty-man companies. This force
became the nucleus of the Virginia Regiment
in the French and Indian War. Initially these
provincial troops were a motley collection of
volunteers from across the colony who took up
arms with the understanding they were to be
paid, albeit poorly.
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
Still, general apathy about the French threat
meant that less than 1 percent of eligible Virginia
19
more necessary, as all the Money already
brought over by the Regimental Paymaster
Stanley
Pargellis, ed., Military Affairs in North
males volunteered for military service in 1754.
The Virginia government responded by institut-
is in Spanish Gold and Dollars. (
ing conscription on certain marginal members of
America, 1748 - 1765:
society and even recruited from other colonies.
After the reality check of Virginia's military
ments from the Cumberland Papers
reversals in mid -1754 and with his £ 10,000
Archon Books, 1969], 81.)
Selected Docu-
in Windsor Castle [ Hamden, Conn.:
war chest empty, Dinwiddie reconvened the
Such an influx of specie may have boosted the
legislature in late August in a futile attempt to
economy of Williamsburg and the rest of tidewa-
get passage of a second military appropriations
ter where it was disbursed not only for soldiers'
pay but also locally for military supplies. Indeed,
bill. The soldiers' pay was curtailed, and the
governor gave up hope of renewing offensive
operations that year.
Unlike the Virginia General Assembly, the
British government took the French threat
seriously. In October 1754, word came that the
home ministry was contributing £ 20,000 to the
Virginia war effort, as well as 2, 000 small arms
to its arsenal.
the most common silver coins found here ar-
chaeologically today are Spanish pistareens and
pieces of pistareens cut to make change.
In May 1755, two months after Braddock's appeal for specie, the assembly authorized the first
issue of Virginia paper money to help finance
the war effort. The burgesses very reluctantly
resorted to paper currency, but saw no alterna-
By the time the assembly reconvened later
tive to issuing treasury notes in anticipation of
that month, the controversy over the pistole
fee had been laid to rest and harmony between
collecting the taxes to fund their military appropriations bills. The notes could be used to pay
governor and legislators had been restored. The
taxes and were made legal tender for all private
burgesses matched the British appropriation
transactions. To help ensure their value, the first
with another £ 20,000 toward military defense.
The following spring, the assembly cautiously
notes bore an interest rate of five percent.
authorized an additional war bill for £ 10, 000.
When the assembly authorized the issuance
of noninterest- bearing notes in the summer of
The home ministry also determined to send
1757, however, British merchants lodged a com-
British regular troops under Gen. Edward Brad-
plaint against Virginia with the Board of Trade.
dock to Virginia's aid. Braddock arrived in
The merchants declared that the new notes
Alexandria in February 1755. Despite the existing legislative appropriations, the general was
were issued against insufficient tax levies, under-
forced to linger there for two months due to
rate between paper currency and sterling.
lack of horses, wagons, and other necessities. His
mining their value and distorting the exchange
From
1755
to
1762,
Virginia
authorized
army got moving only after Benjamin Franklin
eleven issues of treasury notes, all printed in Wil-
negotiated a contribution of 150 wagons from
liamsburg, in an assortment of denominations
ranging from 1 shilling to £ 20. According to cu-
Pennsylvania farmers.
When Braddock disembarked at Hampton
in the spring, the British Army and the Virginia
rator Erik Goldstein, no examples of the earliest
notes from 1755 to 1756 are known to exist.
Regiment were poised to embark on a gargan-
Colonial Williamsburg does own a number
tuan military campaign in a place with little
of rare later issue notes, several of which are
circulating specie ( coin) and no paper money.
on display in the coin exhibit Pounds, Pence,
The need for money to pay troops was so dire
and Pistareens in the DeWitt Wallace Decora-
that on March 20, 1755, Braddock wrote from
tive Art Museum, along with a fragment of an
Williamsburg to the Duke of Newcastle, first
lord of the treasury:
original printer's plate for Virginia notes. An
As small coined Silver will be greatly
wanted for payment of the Troops, and as
no considerable Quantity of it can be got
in this Province; I must beg of your Grace
to direct the Contractors, Mr. Hanbury
example of the April 7, 1762, Virginia issue, as
well as images of a pistareen and a pistole can be
seen on the Foundation's online coin exhibit at
as possible, if they have not already done
www.history.org/ coins.
After the military reversals of the summer
of 1755, Dinwiddie convened the assembly in
an emergency session. The legislature quickly
granted his defense requests, including £40,000
it, four or five Thousand pounds, in Pi-
for the protection of the frontiers and a provin-
Mr Thomlinson, to send over as soon
astrines &
Half Piastrines: which is the
cial army of 1, 200 men.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
20
By early spring of 1756, George Washington
had called for a doubling of the size of this army,
and the assembly responded by authorizing a 25
tobacco ( 4 pence) per tithable ( taxable person)
percent increase in the number of men and a grant
tithable was set at 4 shillings per annum for the
duration of the war. Heads of households were
of £2, 000 to hastily build a network of eighty -one
makeshift forts along the western frontier.
The assembly also provided £ 1, 000 for the
building of a fort in friendly Cherokee country
along Virginia's southwestern border. As the war
dragged on, legislators who had hesitated to appropriate funds at the beginning of the conflict
increasingly understood the need. By January
1757, the assembly had approved a total of
125, 000 for the colony's defense, a figure that
quadrupled in the next five years.
In spite of all this, soldiers still had difficulty
getting their pay. In April 1757, Treasurer and
Speaker John Robinson noted that the men
of the Virginia Regiment were owed £ 6, 000 in
back pay. The assembly approved the necessary
pay bill, but by year's end, two Virginia com-
in the 1750s to 1 shilling by mid -1755 — trebling
taxes due per person. After 1757 the poll tax per
taxpayers. They paid the per person tax due
for the number of tithables in their households
blacks 16 and older, white men 16 and older).
When income from the poll tax no longer
sufficed, the assembly enacted a land tax. Other
levies were placed on business licenses, court
suits, and luxury carriages. Finally, the legislature increased the rates on exported tobacco and
imported slaves.
James Maury summed up the view of many
Virginians on taxes when he wrote in June 1756
that the assembly had imposed "[ p] ractically
every kind of tax ever devised by the ingenuity of law- making bodies. Taxes on taxes are
multiplied, and, though it be a necessary, it is a
heavy burden."
panies in South Carolina found themselves so
distressed for funds that the governor sent them
his own personal bill of exchange for £500.
For further information, see James R. W. Titus,
While draft laws primarily affected the poorest fifth of Virginia's population, rising taxes
during the war impinged upon a wide portion
of society, both rich and poor. Early military
expenditures were funded by poll ( per person)
taxes, which more than doubled during the
first years of the war, rising from 4. 6 pounds of
University, 1983).
Soldiers When They Chose To Be So: Virginians at War, 1754 - 1763" ( Ph.D. diss., Rutgers
Bob Doares, with thanks to Erik Goldstein, cura-
tor, Department of Collections)
Q & A was compiled by Bob Doares, training specialist in the Department of Interpretive Training.)
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
21
As the Dust Settles
A Department of Archaeological Research Update)
Rediscovering Ravenscroft
by Meredith Poole
Meredith is a staff archaeologist and coordinator of public programs
in the Department of Archaeological Research.
The Ravenscroft property, site of the De-
cross -trenching, exposed two cellars: one, the
partment of Archaeological Research's current
remains of a substantial house ( a building that
exhibit dig, is one of the more " anonymous" locations in the Historic Area. While supporting
sheep and crops of flax over the last sixty years,
modest fourteen by sixteen feet, with physical
straddled present Botetourt Street); the other a
characteristics that stumped the interpreting
these two lots have rarely drawn much attention
from passersby. This was not always the case.
draftsmen and architects. Whether for reasons
By the middle of the eighteenth century, the
or the inconvenience of closing Botetourt Street
of uncertainty over this building's configuration
Ravenscroft property demanded notice. Standing
to reconstruct the other, neither structure was
at the end of an important cross street, this mul-
rebuilt. The site was reburied and, for nearly fifty
tiple - "townstead" boasted an impressive house
lot
years, assumed the guise of "green space."
now partially under Botetourt Street) and a full
complement of outbuildings. This was no sheep
But the Ravenscroft site was not easily forgotten. In the archaeology lab, drawers of artifacts
collected by excavators at a time when many
pasture; this was a destination and home to a
number of influential men: Thomas Ravenscroft,
items were often overlooked served as enduring
a carpenter and sheriff of James City County, mer-
reminders of the site' s exceptional qualities. And
chant John Holt, and William Hunter and Joseph
when the Ravenscroft property was considered as
Royle, printers of the Virginia Gazette.
a location for the tenant house exhibit in 1998,
Given this remarkable background, the story
here might not be the current excavation, but
why it has taken archaeologists so long to investigate the Ravenscroft site in the first place.
Actually, the current dig marks the third
archaeological foray onto colonial lots 267
and 268. In 1954, excavators sliced trenches
across both parcels in their quest to find brick
foundations of buildings to reconstruct. This
brutal— albeit efficient— technique, known as
archaeologists were among the first to weigh in.
As the site of a tenant house exhibit, Ravenscroft was an appropriate location. For much
of the eighteenth century, tenants did, indeed,
reside there. Many were tenants of extraordinary
means, but tenants nonetheless.
The property's undeveloped state was yet another point in its favor. But the fact that there
were eighteenth- century foundations underneath
posed a challenge. To protect those, plans called
for the tenant house to be raised
on piers and positioned between
the two cellars. As an added precaution, archaeologists were dis-
patched ( during three very wet
weeks in January) to excavate,
record,
and
recover
evidence
lying within the " footprint" of
the proposed building.
This
archaeological "
win-
dow" proved fortuitously placed,
intercepting a large and very
rich trash pit. Among the more
than 9,000 artifacts recovered
were fragments that spoke of
unusual
affluence:
pewter
tea-
Excavation of the Ravenscroft
cellar, 1954
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
22
when archaeologists began discuss-
ing a site for the 2006 " exhibit
dig." This time the Ravenscroft site
2006 Excavation Area
seemed an ideal choice. In addition
to its
unchallenged
archaeologi-
cal merits, the site was positioned
just outside of Revolutionary City®
for high visibility. Additionally, it
1
could be linked to important co-
lonial figures, including William
Hunter and Joseph Royle, whose
1 998 Excavation Area
10 m
0
successive roles as publishers of the
Virginia Gazette made them people
30 ft
0
The Ravenscroft property showing foundations found
in 1954, the 1998 excavation area with features,
of interest in the years leading up to
the Revolutionary War.
In the spring of 2006, archaeologists returned
for a third, and more extended, examination of
and the current project area ( opened in 2006) .
the Ravenscroft site. The current project focuses
and tablespoons, glass decanters, and Chinese
on the smaller Ravenscroft cellar and takes on
porcelain. Many of the architectural artifacts
questions left unanswered by previous excava-
from this pit had a decidedly seventeenth century
tions. Archaeologists and archaeological field
feel." When chemical tests suggested that the
school students have spent two summers reex-
clay roofing tiles had been fired in John Page's
1660s tile kiln at today's nearby Bruton Heights,
posing the cellar in an effort to learn when it was
hopes were high that the smaller cellar might date
who may have inhabited the space.
built, what it looked like, how it was used, and
At first glance, this project might seem a repeat
to the Middle Plantation period.
Unfortunately, archaeological salvage projects,
of work already accomplished. The cellar, after all,
such as the one conducted in advance of the ten-
was found and completely emptied in 1954. But
ant house construction, often produce more ques-
different techniques have produced better and
tions than answers. Though the Ravenscroft site
more insightful results. Instead of narrow cross -
clearly encompassed a rich record of eighteenth -
trenches, archaeologists are currently working in
and perhaps seventeenth century occupations,
an area large enough to reveal the cellar as well as
prior claim prevented further excavation.
Over the short but successful duration of the
tenant house exhibition, archaeological pres-
related additions, fences, or work spaces. Digging
ervation was a central theme of training, and
interpreters became vital allies in protecting the
archaeological record underfoot.
Archaeology is often a cumulative process
with successive excavations contributing to an
the site stratigraphically ( one layer at a time) provides an opportunity to explore how the property
changed over time. Although many of these lay-
ers have been churned by decades of plowing, the
recent discovery of intact stratigraphy at the site's
south end offers a chance to link people with the
objects they used.
overall understanding of what a site looked like
The Ravenscroft cellar has been the " center-
and how people lived on it. While no reconstruction had ever taken place on the Ravenscroft
piece" of the excavation, capturing the atten-
property, evidence for the site' s eighteenth century appearance had been mounting.
The basic layout was established in 1954 with
tion of guests and providing student interpreters
accustomed to pointing out the vague outlines
of postholes) with something visible to discuss.
While portions of the cellar wall began emerg-
the discovery of two brick cellars and a well.
ing from the dirt in 2006, the feature was not
Nearly half a century later, in 1998, different
fully exposed until mid -2007.
excavation
techniques
captured
more
subtle
Energetic field school students took turns
evidence of the site's plan: postholes, boundary
excavating the fill, recovering more than 150
ditches, and a large trash pit. Artifacts from those
bags of artifacts from the building's interior.
features yielded dates with which archaeologists
Recognition that the artifacts had been dumped
roughed in a site chronology. But for all that was
known, much remained frustratingly unclear.
By early 2006, the tenant house had been
a mere fifty -three years prior ( in the aftermath
relocated
once
more,
this
time to
the
greener
pastures of Great Hopes Plantation. The property
was again vacant, save for a few grazing sheep,
of the 1954 project) did little to dampen their
enthusiasm. In fact, the Ravenscroft cellar,
despite its disturbed nature, contained a full
education in the range of eighteenth century
material culture.
�23
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
Present dating evidence attributes the cellar to the tenure of Thomas Ravenscroft.
If, however, archaeologists find more recent
artifacts as they continue excavating within
the builder' s trench, both the believed date
of cellar construction and its ownership will
change accordingly.
And what of the seventeenth -century material found in the trash pit? In a disappointing but
intriguing twist, the seventeenth -century mate-
rial turned out to lie above the early eighteenth century builder's trench, indicating that it was
dumped after 1720. Apparently, as the eighteenth- century building was being constructed,
Wine bottle seal impressed with " Jno Greenhow
Williamsburg 1770"
someone was tearing down a seventeenth- cen -
Among the more notable items were wig
curlers, octagonal wine bottles bearing the seal
tury building nearby and tossing the debris into
the trash pit. While this theory neatly ties up
of John Greenhow, shoe buckles, wine glasses
the trash pit's reversed stratigraphy, it adds the
with airtwist stems, pipe bowls, gun flints, and a
search for the Middle Plantation period building
vast assortment of ceramic vessels.
to our to - list.
do
In addition to artifacts, two years of digging
While dating the cellar has been reasonably
have yielded answers to a number of archaeological questions. We now know that the cellar,
straightforward, the function of the building it
supported remains a mystery. The Ravenscroft
previously undated, was constructed sometime
cellar has some unusual physical characteristics
after 1720, based on the presence of a ceramic
that hint at its possible use. A wide bulkhead
Rogers ware"
builder's trench ( the backfilled hole in which
entrance centered on the front of the building,
for example, indicates that delivery and storage
the foundation was constructed). Yorktown pot-
of large items were important, as would be true
ter William Rogers began producing this type of
pottery in 1720, indicating that the cellar had to
be dug sometime after that date ( how long after
size and its location in relation to the main
1720 remains to be seen).
be an outbuilding.
commonly known as "
in
the
Ravenscroft cellar at the end of the 2007 field season
of a store. Altematively, the building's small
house ( uncovered in 1954) suggest that it could
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
24
Perhaps the most engaging theory, however,
stems from an 1820s reference to a property in
this vicinity as " the old bakehouse lot." Com-
Altematively, this building may always have
been the small square that it is today. The
Frenchman's Map certainly shows it as such by
mercial bread production might explain the
1781. If this is so, then the large fireplace is, in
need for wide cellar steps to accommodate crates
fact, an external oven, lending credibility to the
bake house theory.
and barrels. Bread baking may also shed light on
the cellar's most puzzling feature: a large hearth
that seems to be on the outside of the building.
For archaeologists, the possibility that this
The People of the Ravenscroft Site
cellar might be the remains of a commercial
The most compelling stories that are likely
bake house provides an opportunity to study the
Ravenscroft property in a larger context —one
that could conceivably include William Rob-
to emerge from the Ravenscroft project will be
ertson's windmill, of the same time period, just
of continuous occupation, there are many po-
to the west.
tential subjects, beginning with members of the
African American community centered in this
part of town during the late nineteenth and
Pursuing the bake house theory will take
time. Comparison
of this
cellar with
other
known examples of eighteenth- century bake
houses will clarify whether there are similarities
in form. Other tests can be conducted closer to
home. Samples of soil from the cellar floor and
mortar used in repairs will be taken to determine
stories about the people who made this property
their home. With nearly three hundred years
early twentieth centuries.
Because it is the lot of archaeologists to
read" history backward, it is these most recent
the Eppses, the Braxtons, and the
residents —
Crumps —whose history is best represented in
whether they contain archaeobotanical remains
our " finds bags."
of wheat or other grains that would be present in
large quantities in a commercial bake house.
archaeologists have had, and look forward to,
It is important to remember that regardless
additional encounters with some of the site's eigh-
of how the Ravenscroft building was used, it
is likely to have been familiar to the enslaved
teenth- century residents: Christopher Jackson
members of successive households. A store, a
kitchen, or a bake house would have required
slave labor. Additionally, slaves were often
a carpenter; Robert Wills ( 1739), a tavem keeper
whose tavem we do not believe was located on
this site); John Holt ( 1745), a merchant; and
housed in outbuildings. So while the function
printers William Hunter ( 1754) and Joseph Royle
In working down through the soil layers,
1713), a surveyor; Thomas Ravenscroft ( 1715),
of this building may remain ambiguous for a
1761). Many of these were the wealthy and suc-
time, its excavation provides the opportunity to
cessful men whose garbage so dazzled archaeolo-
examine tangible evidence of lives poorly represented in Williamsburg's written history.
Ultimately, it may prove impossible to discover
the function of this building without determining
gists over the course of three excavations.
its configuration. Archaeologists continue to be
perplexed by the outward- facing hearth on the
exterior wall of the Ravenscroft cellar. Its presence
There are other tales to be told as well.
Wives, children, slaves, and ( in the later eigh-
teenth century) tenants lived and worked here,
leaving impressions in the ground, if not in
the historical record. Through documentary
research, archaeologists are compiling a list of
suggests that the building, when standing, had an
those whose lives played out on these lots: Ste-
uncellared room extending north.
a builder's trench, piers, or other indication of
phen, Anthony, Juba, Doll, Ellen, Isabel, Judy,
Billy, Jammy, William, and Nanny ( of the Holt
household); James, Diana, Cesar, and Mat ( of
an addition has left us empty- handed. It is certainly possible that years of plowing have erased
Jenny, Lewis, William, Lydia, and Lucy ( of the
whatever scant evidence existed.
Royle household).
Yet this year's intensive search for postholes,
This advertisement for Jenny, a runaway
from Joseph Royle' s estate, appeared in
Hunter and Dixon's Virginia Gazette,
January 28, 1775
the Hunter household); and Matt, Aberdeen,
from Williamfburg, a light
R U N awaynamed JENNY, belonging to the Eilatc f
Mulatto Girt
ofepb Roylr,
deceai'ed.
She is about i6 Years of Age,
has a
very bulky Head of Hair, and when frightened, a c} u. vn Look.
As fhe is well known in the Neighbourhood of this City, a more
particular Defel iption is unneceilaiy. A Reward of to s. will be
given to any Perfon who will deliver her to the Printeis of this
Paper.
�25
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
For most of these individuals, the documents
today's archaeologists are likely to repeat the
contain little more than a first name. Others, like
process. Unfortunately, exposed cellars are not
infinitely durable; while interesting reminders to
us and to our guests that Williamsburg is a work
16- year -old Jenny, described in a 1775 Gazette
advertisement as " a light Mulatto Girl ...
be-
longing to the Estate of Joseph Royle, deceased,"
are represented in only fragmentary detail.
in progress, they must be protected.
For nearly eighty years, physical reconstruc-
An important goal of this excavation is to
tion has been the goal ( and therefore the ex-
reassemble the stories of these people from dis-
pected outcome) of Historic Area excavations.
carded objects used in their daily lives and work.
More enticing to this generation of researchers,
Although artifacts have been plentiful on the
Ravenscroft site, most of what has been found
ologists or by plowing. While displacement does
however, is the possibility of reconstructing
the Ravenscroft property, not with bricks and
mortar but " virtually," using digital technology
to render the buildings and landscape as they
not detract from the interest of individual arti-
evolved from the seventeenth through the eigh-
facts, it prevents archaeologists from connecting
teenth centuries.
has been disturbed, either by earlier archae-
groups of objects with the people who used them
in anything more than an abstract way.
A number of milestones were reached on the
In August 2007, the Ravenscroft cellar was
imaged" using a three -dimensional laser scanner
as part of the yearlong " Virtual Williamsburg"
Ravenscroft site in 2007, but none was more
celebrated than the removal of the last bit of
disturbed dirt from the current site at the end
pilot project. This planning study, undertaken
of the season. Archaeologists returning in 2008
look forward to an opportunity to sift through
University of Virginia, is focused on exploring
the use of 3D computer graphics for virtually re-
intact deposits" to recover more reliable evi-
constructing eighteenth- century Williamsburg.
dence of the site's eighteenth- century residents.
What next?
The Ravenscroft property is quite large, and
in collaboration with the Institute for Advanced
Technologies in the Humanities ( IATH) at the
The scanning data gives researchers the flexibility to examine the Ravenscroft cellar and
experiment with possible building configurations
long after the site is backfilled. In the future, as
the " Virtual Williamsburg" project moves beyond
there is much ground left to explore. During the
the planning stages to model the entire town, the
2008 season archaeologists will complete work
Ravenscroft property may once more be visible
in the current excavation unit and may expand
virtually" as it was in the eighteenth century.
westward toward the ravine where trash from this
building was likely dumped or toward the north
Excavation on the Ravenscroft site resumes in
to follow a series of postholes identified in 2007.
late May 2008 and will continue through the end
of August. The project is a collaborative effort
between Colonial Williamsburg archaeologists and
students from the College of William and Mary
participating in a summer field school. As an exhibit
dig, the Ravenscroft excavation incorporates public
In future years, as the opportunity presents itself,
portions of the main Ravenscroft building ( those
parts not extending into Botetourt Street) may
be explored. Archaeologists may also search for
the seventeenth- century building whose remains
were once so unceremoniously dumped into a
trash pit. The potential for future excavation on
interpretation into its research- design. Guests and
employees alike are encouraged to visit the site and
this site is tremendous, and archaeologists look
to learn about the archaeological process and recent
forward to many seasons of gratifying work.
discoveries through student interpreters, signs, and
What about reconstruction? Visitors to the
hands -on activities. A web feature and a web log,
Ravenscroft site are often incredulous to learn
maintained through the Research Division website,
that archaeologists in 1954 uncovered two eigh-
provide
teenth- century cellars only to rebury them.
progress of the excavation.)
They are more incredulous still to learn that
additional
materials
and updates
on
the
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
26
The Silver Skull Plate: Samuel Clark' s Career as a Teenage
Militiaman in the Revolutionary War
by Daniel Lovelace
Dan is a former president of the Friends of the National Park Service for Green Spring Inc.
He is completing a book about loyalist espionage during the American Revolution.
Daniel E. Bakeman, the last of the estimated
217, 000 Americans who served in the Revo-
lutionary War, died on April 5, 1869, at the
age of 109.)
deputy commander of Monroe County's 108th
militia regiment. Before he died in 1857 at
age 92, he had received a veteran's pension for
twenty five years and been granted 160 acres of
federal bounty land in recognition of his service
during America's two wars with Great Britain.
Most of the American troops who took the
Samuel Clark's gravestone has been lost and
field during the War of Independence were mem-
buried by time, but a powerful symbol of his War
bers of state militia units, rather than soldiers in
church records, and family archives. Because
young Samuel Clark's experiences as a Virginia
of 1812 military career has been handed down
through the Clark family and remains on private
display to this day: a handsome, custom -made
officer's dress sword. It was probably presented
to him after the war by either his subordinate officers or the citizens of Monroe County. Embellished with an ivory grip and a gold damascened
blade, the brass -mounted sword was probably
decorated by a silversmith and would have been
militiaman were both protracted and occa-
an expensive gift in 1815. ( See figure 1.)
the Regular or Continental Army. Few of these
citizen soldiers kept diaries that have survived,
and the list of personal memoirs penned later
in life by militiamen is short. Thus, what little
we know about them is usually obtained from
official documents such as pension applications,
sionally exciting, his well- documented career
provides a valuable historical " snapshot" of the
militia system in action during the final years of
the American War of Independence.
Family Background
Born April 18, 1764, Samuel Clark came
Seventeen year old Samuel Clark was one
from a family that had lived in western Virginia's
vast Augusta County for three generations.
of the unsung heroes of the Revolutionary War.
His grandfather James served with British led
Between September 1780 and April 1782, Clark
militia forces during the French and Indian
was twice drafted, and on three occasions he
War and later became a land agent and owner
volunteered to serve ninety - tours with variday
of an 800 -acre plantation near Staunton in
ous Virginia militia units.
the Shenandoah Valley. By the time he died in
On the afternoon of July 6, 1781, he fought in
the opening phase of the Battle of Green Spring,
five miles west of Williamsburg in James City
County, Virginia. Severely wounded by the saber
produced eleven children, including six sons.
1778, James Clark and his wife, Elizabeth, had
Samuel's father, William Clark ( born in
1738), inherited land near Moffatt's Creek in
of a British cavalry trooper ( he carried a silver
Augusta County. He married Margaret Mc-
plate in his skull for the rest of his life), Clark
Cutchan in 1760, fathered three children, and
lived to fight again at the siege of Yorktown.
died in 1766 at age 28, two years after Samuel
He later raised a family and became a successful farmer and public figure in Monroe County,
Virginia. During the War of 1812, he served as
was born.
When his mother remarried in 1769, Samuel
and his elder brother and younger sister were
each adopted by relatives from his mother's
first marriage. Samuel was raised by his uncle
Alexander Clark and endured a challenging
childhood living on what was part of Virginia's
Figure 1:
Samuel
western frontier.
Presentation
According to his Revolutionary War pension
application, young Samuel began his Virginia
Sword
militia career in September 1780 as a substitute
Clark' s
in place of Thomas Means, a man who had
been drafted to serve in an Augusta County
unit commanded by Capt. Thomas McCutchin
�27
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
most probably a relative of Samuel's mother).
His second tour of militia duty was with Captain
Trimble's company of Colonel Sampson' s regiment, during which he took part in a skirmish
with British forces near Portsmouth, at the entrance to the James River in eastern Virginia.
The Militia System in Wartime Virginia
Motivated by patriotism, bounty money, substitute fees, or family considerations ( serving in
an estimated 166,000
place of older relatives),
men served in the militia units of the various
states during the War of Independence. Some
were drafted, but most were volunteers, many of
whom served three or more ninety - ay militia
d
tours, usually with different companies or regiments and sometimes under the flags of more
than one state.
The militia system had operated in North
America since the earliest days of British colonial rule. Thanks to participation in repeated
English invasions of French Canada and the
need to counter more serious Native American
resistance, militia capabilities developed more
rapidly in the townships of New England. In
the agrarian South they were strengthened by
the influx of some 250, 000 immigrants into the
western backcountry of the southern colonies
between 1730 and 1775, where militias became
the only reliable defense against Indian attacks.
Figure 2: A Virginia Militiaman ( by Don Troiani)
Virginia revitalized its militia institution at
the outset of the Revolution, with many coun-
conflict. As one British Army historian put it,
ties continuing the requirement that all male
citizens between 16 and 60 appear for drills at
American militia, a factor which could never
least once a month.
be counted on by its friends, but equally could
Militia members were required to provide
their
own
weapons
and
ammunition,
there was always the incalculable factor, the
never be ignored by its enemies."
which
often resulted in a mix of hunting rifles and
smoothbore muskets. Other militia weapons
included such " frontier warfare" items as toma-
hawks and butcher knives.
Samuel Clark and the Battle of
Green Spring
Clark joined his third militia unit ( a part
of Col. Thomas Huggard's regiment, led by
Militia uniforms were irregular, often consist-
Capt. Patrick Buckhannon) in May 1781 as a
ing of a hunting shirt and leggings, or a jacket
substitute for his cousin John McCutchen. His
cousin had been drafted for three months, but
with patched trousers. (
See figure 2.) Virginia
quality of their commanding officers. Although
who from the situation of his family could not
with safety to them leave home."
Captain Buckhannon's company marched
from Augusta County to James City County,
where it joined a detachment of the steadily
growing 1, 500 -man army led by the Marquis de
Lafayette and Gen. Anthony Wayne, which had
been shadowing the 5, 000 remaining veterans
of General Comwallis's expeditionary force for
nearly two months. Little did Samuel know
militia units were notorious for their unreliabil-
that he was destined to fight in two of the most
ity, early in the war they formed the nucleus of
important engagements leading to the victory
at Yorktown: the skirmish at Spencer's Ordinary
and the Battle of Green Spring.
militia companies seldom consisted of more than
one hundred men. During the colonial period,
officers were appointed from among the gentry
and well -to - o planters who also held top county
d
offices and served in the House of Burgesses.
The combat effectiveness of America's militia
forces during the Revolution ranged from embarrassing to brilliant, depending upon their levels
of training, readiness, and motivation and the
the Continental Army, which they continued
to support in joint operations throughout the
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
28
1645 by colonial governor Sir William Berkeley
some three miles north of
Jamestown Island. Because
Oeurrama
the American forces had
few cavalry of their own,
the riflemen's mission was
to counter probes by Col.
Banastre Tarleton's infa-
mous light cavalry unit
known as " The British Legion." (
See figure 4.) Still
smarting from their defeat
at the Battle of Cowpens
in mid January, the legion's 200 loyalist troopers had been performing
screening and raiding misrte."
,
o
Owen. Pal
sions for Comwallis's army
since its arrival in Virginia
in May.
Clark and his fellow
riflemen had arrived at
HMO
Figure 3: Modern map showing locations of Green
Spring, Jamestown Island, and Williamsburg.
Green Spring Plantation
earlier that day, part of
the advance guard of a steadily growing Ameri-
can army commanded by Lafayette and Wayne.
The June 26 clash near Spencer's Ordi-
This force included several hundred Virginia
nary ( a tavem about nine miles northwest of
militiamen and some 900 experienced regulars
Williamsburg) was a meeting engagement that
from three Pennsylvania regiments of the continental line.
broke out when two hostile columns ran into
each other by accident. Clark's unit was one of
three Virginia militia companies and one hundred American dragoons that intercepted a Brit-
ish raiding party led by loyalist Col. John Graves
Simcoe. He and his 360 -man "Queen's Rangers"
were returning from burning ships and foraging
on the Chickahominy River about twenty miles
northwest of Williamsburg.
The Americans got the worst of the three -
hour " running battle" that followed, but both
forces escaped to their lines with light casualties.
Clark did not keep a diary of his militia tours, so
we can only guess at his reaction to seeing British cavalry units in action for the first time. He
had a second opportunity to engage such forces
some ten days later, less than fifteen miles to the
south, near a 7, 000 -acre, 150 -year -old planta-
tion known as Green Spring. ( See figure 3.)
One of the last major open field engagements
of the American Revolution, the Battle of Green
Spring involved some 6,000 men ( 1, 500 American and 4, 500 British), and produced more than
200 casualties ( 150 American, 75 British).
On the afternoon of July 6, 1781, Clark was
one of roughly 200 Virginia militia riflemen
deployed as skirmishers south of Green Spring
Plantation, the imposing brick mansion built in
Figure 4: British Legion Trooper ( by Don Troiani)
�29
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
Figure 5: Cornwallis's Troops Maneuvering to Surround
Lafayette and Wayne had been shadowing
Wayne' s Force
miles south of modern -day Toano, Virginia, and
the exhausted, but still powerful, British expedi-
later to a field hospital closer to Richmond.
tionary force under Cornwallis for two months,
waiting for an opportunity to attack. Thanks to
false information planted by British intelligence
agents, Lafayette initially believed that most
of Cornwallis's army had already crossed the
James River, leaving only a rear guard behind
at Jamestown. In reality, 4,000 battle- hardened
British troops lay hidden in the woods at the
southern end of Green Spring Road ready to
Given the seriousness of his injury, one
might think that Clark was lucky to survive, let
alone turn up three months later at the Siege
of Yorktown. However, eighteenth- century
military medicine was quite familiar with skull
ambush the attacking Americans.
forward surgical procedure, plus Samuel's youth
wounds such as Clark's. Surgeons of the period
knew that a silver plate was best suited to cover
an " open- brain" wound, because silver' s chem-
istry tended to prevent infections. This straight-
Clark and his fellow Virginians were some
and vigorous constitution, undoubtedly saved
of the first victims of Cornwallis's trap. In an
his life.
The subsequent events and final outcome
attempt to goad the Americans into attack-
ing, Cornwallis sent Tarleton's legion up Green
Spring Road and deployed a company of infantry
pickets across the road to simulate a rear guard
protecting a small remaining British force.
When Clark's unit, a company of 100 Virginia riflemen commanded by Capt. Patrick
Buckhannon, encountered Tarleton' s cavalry, a
chaotic firefight took place in a heavily wooded
area just south of Green Spring Plantation.
Clark was part of Wayne's advance guard trying
of the Battle of Green Spring are fairly well
known. After pushing aside the British skirmishers and sending the three continental line
regiments down Green Spring Road and into
open fields on the approaches to Jamestown
Island, Lafayette and Wayne realized too late
that they had blundered into a trap and were
about to be surrounded and annihilated. ( See
figure 5).
to force Cornwallis' s pickets to retreat toward
Only a brave but costly charge against the
center of the British line by the Pennsylva-
the James River.
nian regulars gave the American forces time
When the British Legion's troopers came
to the pickets' defense, Clark received his
to withdraw and prevented a clear cut victory
for Cornwallis, who decided not to pursue the
saber wound. Samuel was probably one of the
fourteen men wounded ( along with one killed)
reported by one of the militia companies in the
Green Spring engagement.
Taken immediately to Green Spring Planta-
American force as darkness fell over the battle-
tion for treatment, Clark was evacuated that
New York.
night to Chickahominy Church, located two
field. Protected by Royal Navy vessels, the main
body of British troops crossed the James River
the following day on their way to Portsmouth,
from whence they expected to be evacuated to
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
30
Samuel Clark' s Post –
Green Spring
Military Career
After receiving further treatment at a field
hospital on the Pamunkey River, Clark was
1. 11d6a¢,
discharged from his third Virginia militia unit
w'hcn Rahnh@ Cgmrusnssi
n
in August 1781. He was immediately drafted
to serve three months in another Augusta
County militia company, this one commanded
by Capt. Francis Long.
According to his Revolutionary War pen-
wtr
Ctiu
dcdicaged 1
is nag. ao'd ek7es
Figure 6: Rehoboth Church,
Union, West Virginia
as 411140, were this is %4.
earrt€d g
t11e worshiper:
edlest shareh hKigdfw not
ni the Mk
Rcaueiar.
sion application, Clark's new militia unit was
deployed to Yorktown, where he took part in
Clark probably invested most of his fortune
the two week siege, witnessed the October 19
in land, and census documents list his occupa-
surrender, guarded British prisoners of war on
tion as " a farmer."
their way to Winchester, Virginia, and was again
records show that, in 1794 and 1796, Samuel
discharged.
Clark purchased two parcels of land totaling 125
acres from his father -n -aw John Handley and a
i l
In April 1782, he volunteered to serve his
County land conveyance
last ninety -day militia tour, this time with a
man named John Kincaid.
company under the command of Capt. John
McKitrick. The unit was fighting Indians in
the Ohio Territory along the west fork of the
He eventually built a log farmhouse ( the
chimney and one wall of which have survived to
this day as part of a modern home) on a gentle
Monongahela River and in the Tygart River
slope with a spectacular valley view three miles
Valley. Clark described his duties during this as-
south of Union. (See figure 7.)
signment as those of "a spy."
During the next five decades, he and Mary
Margaret raised seven children and accumulated
Between Two " British" Wars
At the end of the war in 1783, Clark returned
to Augusta County as a hero, and thanks to two
years' worth of pay and bonus money, probably a
well - one. By 1786, he had moved fifty miles
off
southwest to a part of Augusta County that in
1799 became Monroe County and had married
a woman named Mary Margaret Handley from
nearby Greenbriar County.
The Handley family had been early settlers
of the area. Mary's father had served as a county
a considerable estate, acquiring more farmland
and a dozen slaves. A Monroe County personal
property list of 1799 shows Samuel Clark owning only four horses, but by 1850, the census for
Monroe County estimated the value of 85 -yearold Samuel Clark's estate at $ 10, 000 —the
mod-
ern - ay equivalent of about $ 220,000.
d
Major" Clark (so named to differentiate him
from two other relatives named Samuel) was
also active in public life. His wartime experience
no doubt helped him acquire a commission in
constable prior to 1773, and her uncle James was
one of five trustees who helped found the town
the county militia, and by 1790, he had attained
of Union, Virginia, in 1774.
Thanks to intermittent raids by Native
Monroe County was established in 1799,
and the town of Union became its county seat.
Americans, Virginia's western frontier was still
a dangerous place for white settlers in 1786.
voters during the election of November 3, 1800,
An entry in The History of Monroe County,
the rank of captain.
Samuel and his uncle were listed as qualified
which shows that both men were considered
West Virginia notes that Rehoboth Methodist
persons of some property and consequence."
Church completed in 1786 was built in such
County records indicate that Samuel served as
a way that " the red men could not have come
within rifle shot unseen." It also mentions that
Samuel Clark, a veteran of the Revolution, was
one of the men who placed the wall logs [ of the
church] in their positions." ( A reconstruction
of the Rehoboth Church now stands on the
original foundations some two miles outside of
Union and is open to the public.) The church's
sign on West Virginia Route 3 notes that, in
1786, worshipers carried rifles as well as Bibles
when visiting " the oldest church building west
of the Allegheny Mountains." ( See figure 6.)
Figure 7: Samuel Clark's farmhouse site
�31
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
a county official on several occasions, being ap-
rine forces to Chesapeake Bay and its several
pointed by the governor of Virginia as a justice
of the Monroe County Court in 1816.
rivers. Although the British conducted few
major attacks in the area ( such as the June 26,
1813, sacking and burning of Hampton), they
frequently raided and destroyed plantations and
War of 1812
When the United States declared war on
other high value targets. There is no evidence
Great Britain on June 18, 1812, America's reguthem deployed in dozens of small posts and
to indicate that the 108th saw any combat during the war, and it is likely that its companies
were principally engaged in garrison duties that
garrisons around the country and along the na-
strengthened the defenses of Virginia's capital
tion's western frontiers. Led initially by officers
and its principal port city.
who often were superannuated veterans of the
In August 1832, 68- year - ld Samuel Clark
o
submitted a detailed declaration of his service in
lar army totaled fewer than 7, 000 men, most of
Revolutionary War, these " forces in being" were
not sufficient to defend the country or successfully invade Canada. Under such circumstances,
the Revolutionary War in hopes of obtaining a
federal pension. His application was supported by
the state militias were expected to fill the gaps
his friend Berryman Jones, who had served with
in America's defenses.
him in three militia companies and had fought
While Virginia contributed relatively few
soldiers to the regular army during the second
Anglo- American conflict, its long- standing tra-
alongside him at the Battle of Green Spring.
dition of county- based militia unit organization
and training made the Old Dominion a major
Clark's pension
certificate
was
issued on
December 26, 1832, and he " was placed on the
Virginia pension roll at $ 50.00 per annum."
Twenty -three years later, he applied for bounty
potential source of militia manpower.
land being offered to Revolutionary War veter-
In early 1812, Virginia's adjutant general
listed some 60,000 men fit for militia duty,
and by late 1814, almost all of them had been
ans, and was issued a land warrant for 160 acres
mobilized for various lengths of time. With
few exceptions, state militia units were called
1844, and was buried in Greenhill Cemetery,
located on a hilltop overlooking the town of
Union. He did not remarry but remained active
in his community. He was appointed sheriff in
into federal service by United States military
authorities (
i.e.,
The War Department)
and
were paid with funds ultimately provided by the
federal government.
In 1812, Samuel Clark was 48 years old and
had held the rank of major in the 108th regi-
ment ( Monroe County) of the Virginia militia
since March 18, 1809. Clark served as deputy
commander of this regiment during the War of
1812. The other regimental officers were Lt. Col.
Richard Shanklin and Maj. Conrad Peters.
the location is unknown) on May 24, 1856.
Major" Clark's wife died on November 24,
1845 and helped found Union's first Masonic
lodge in 1849.
Three of his four sons remained in the vicin-
ity of Union and prospered, becoming farmers
John and James), a tavern keeper ( William),
and —
in the case of his grandson Samuel A.
Clark— winning election as sheriff. When he
died on January 27, 1857, Samuel was 92, having outlived Mary Margaret by thirteen years.
The four companies that made up the 108th
The details of Clark's will reveal new dimen-
regiment included a company of riflemen com-
sions of his life. It had been drawn up on June 3,
manded by Capt. Andrew Burne ( or Beirne), a
troop of cavalry commanded by Capt. Charles
W. Lewis, and infantry companies commanded
by Lt. William McDaniel and Capt. Andrew
1851, and was probated in February 1857, with
John Clark and Alexander Clark serving as
Nickell. However, after militia companies had
often placed under the command of regular army
a dozen slaves, livestock, and other property
among his children, Samuel Clark's will included a clause providing one of the family's
officers, with their local ( i.e., militia) command-
slaves, a woman named Ruth, with special treat-
been mobilized and brought together, they were
ing officers assuming subordinate positions.
Although the exact dates of Clark's tenure as
executors.
In addition to the usual disposal of land,
ment. According to the document, "
Ruth, a
faithful negro servant, [ was to be] allowed to
deputy commander of the 108th remain uncer-
choose which one of [ Samuel's] children she
tain, the regiment's companies were repeatedly
wants to live with and serve, and the one she
selects is asked to take care of her the remainder
called up to help defend the Richmond and Norfolk areas for varying periods, beginning in the fall
of 1813 and lasting through the spring of 1815.
These deployments usually coincided with
the periodic return of British naval and ma-
of her life for the good she has done them." Apparently Ruth and her husband ( by this time
deceased) had helped " Major" Clark raise his
children after his wife's death in 1844.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
32
Lessons of Clark's Story
soldiers who fought the Revolution's opening
As a veteran of America's first and second
battles and provided the nucleus of experienced
Wars of Independence, Samuel Clark witnessed
manpower for the Continental Army.
After the Revolutionary War, the myth of
the cost and benefits of a national defense sys-
tem that traced its origins back to the " trained
the political and military superiority of militia
bands" of Henry VIII's England. Motivated by
forces perpetuated itself, preventing the creation
of even a small standing army staffed by full time professionals ( and directed by a secretary of
the appeal of citizen soldier militias and fears of
the potential despotism of standing armies, during the colonial period all the British colonies
except Pennsylvania adopted militia systems of
Because its token regular army was unprepared to deal with major foreign threats, the
some sort.
These forces deteriorated
war and a Department of War) until 1789.
over time and
United States resorted to a militia based strategy
were only revived in the mid- 1700s, as British
to fight the land campaigns of the War of 1812.
regular troops began to be dispatched to North
Only following the embarrassing defeats suffered
America to deal with the growing threat from
at the hands of British and Canadian forces dur-
New France. Alarmed by the English military
ing that conflict did American political leaders
begin to question the wisdom of continuing to
depend primarily upon the citizen -soldier for the
build - p during the French and Indian War, the
u
colonies began to strengthen their militia forces
between 1763 and 1775. It was these citizen-
nation's defense.
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
33
Bothy' s Mould
Presenting the latest dirt (mould)
from the gardener' s hut ( bothy).
Figures of the Most Beautiful, Useful and
Uncommon Plants .. .
by Larry Griffith
Larry is curator of plants in the Landscape
Department.
bear volume designations on green labels. All
edges are gilt. Volume 2 has marbled endpapers,
and both volumes contain the bookplate of John
In the spring of 2001, I was fortunate to receive
a grant from the Mars Family Foundation to deter-
Vernon, Lincoln's Inn.
mine the presence, prevalence, and use of plant
plant encyclopedias. It attempted to lure wealthy
species in the American colonies and among the
European nations. The procedure for doing this
was stipulated by the terms of the grant: that I
both work in the field and conduct documentary
research. My tools were a patch of ground in the
Historic Area and primary and secondary sources,
patrons with its luscious illustrations as well as
one of which was particularly rewarding to study.
That work, contained in the rare books collec-
Figures represents a combination of two types of
provided relevant and accurate botanical com-
mentary regarding plants Miller thought deserved
public attention. In a sense, Figures is a hybrid, bor-
rowing its whole form from various types of treatments of plants: the herbal and the florilegium.
Herbals sought to elucidate the medicinal
properties of plants and illustrate their mor-
tion at the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library, has a
ponderous title that I will abbreviate to Figures of
phology and appropriate uses. Wesley Greene's
the most Beautiful, Useful and Uncommon Plants, or
Summer 2007) presented the history of taxonomy and the herbals exceedingly well. On
the other hand, the interest in the exclusively
ornamental appeal of plants can really be said
even better: Figures. For those readers who wish to
peruse the full title, it is presented below:
Figures of the most Beautiful, Useful
insightful article last season in the Interpreter
Gardeners Dictionary Exhibited on Three
Hundred Copper Plates, Accurately En-
to date from the 1613 publication of the Besler
Florilegium, a flower book dedicated to the sheer
enjoyment of the endless multiples of the " florist
graven after Drawings taken from Nature
flowers" and other ornamentally grown plants.
and Uncommon Plants Described in the
with The Characters of their Flowers and
Seed -Vessels, Drawn when they were in
Figures was a revelation of sorts, a conscious
To which are
distillation of plants that Miller deemed of curious enough nature to include in his opus. In the
added, Their Descriptions, and an Ac-
preface, he explains his plan and his eventual
count of the Classes to which they belong,
according to Ray' s, Tournefort's and Lin naeus' s Method of Classing Them.
This article is primarily about Figures and secondarily its author Philip Miller, who was, from
frustration with it, saying, " The plan of this work
1722 to 1770, curator of the Chelsea Physic
complished, they were seldom if ever illustrated.
their greatest perfection.
was ...
to exhibit the Figures of One or more
Species of all known Genera of Plants." This
would have been a bold undertaking in any case.
Although feats such as this were certainly ac-
Garden on the Thames outside of London.
After an initial offering of plates to the pub-
Other artists also contributed to the work, one
regarded as the most competent botanical artist
lic, Miller determined that his subscribers felt
such an ambitious attempt should be met with
more circumspection. " The Author, therefore,
of the eighteenth century. Another component
almost from the Beginning, found it necessary to
of the work that deserves inspection are the
contract his Plan, and confine it to those Plants
plant collectors Miller names as having sent
only, which are either curious in themselves, or
plants back to Europe from the New World,
may be useful in Trades, Medicine, & c, including the Figures of such new Plants, which do
not include any Species having one or other
of whom was Georg Dionysius Ehret, generally
notably North America.
Figures is a two volume work bound in full diced calfskin with gilt- tooled covers, edges, and
of these Properties ... ;
so that the Number of
turnings. The spines of the volumes are rebound
Plates now included in this Work, are not near
with spines titled Miller's Hist. of Plants, and
so many as was at first intended."
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
34
Miller assures the reader that no expense was
Engravings were most of them done under the
This may account for the rather scant treatment that Figures is given in secondary sources
concerning Miller and his encyclopedic publishing. More credibility and commentary is
Author's inspection; and the Plates have been
devoted to his eight editions of the Gardeners
carefully coloured from the original drawings."
Dictionary, of which Colonial Williamsburg
owns the following:
1733 Gardeners Dictionary, 2nd edition
1752 Gardeners Dictionary, 6th edition
1754 Gardeners Dictionary, 4th edition
spared in the production of the book and that
the drawings " were taken from living Plants; the
He further informs the reader that, in the clas-
sification of the plants selected, he has taken
direction from John Ray's ( 1627- 1705), Joseph
de Tournefort' s (
1656- 1708),
and Linnaeus' s
1707 - 1778) methods of plant description and
3 volumes)
identification. As Greene's detailed article indicated, these plantsmen were Miller's contem-
porary intellectual peers and among Europe's
leading plant taxonomists. Although Ray's and
1763 Abridgement to the Gardeners Dictionary
1768 Gardeners Dictionary, 8th edition
2 volumes); 2 sets.
de Toumefort's careers had come to an end
One source is nearly silent as to the phenomenon of the publication of Figures, giving only
before Miller's had begun, their work was still
the dates when the original plates were struck
highly influential in Miller's lifetime and to his
profession. In addition, he corresponded directly
circa 1755 - 1760. 1 At the bottom of each plate,
with Linnaeus.
If we consider a critical part of Miller's title,
the most Beautiful, Useful and Uncommon
Plants,"
the multiple
narrative and purpose of
Figures becomes apparent. This broad compen-
dium of plant types, from the practical asparagus
to the flamboyant amaryllis, coupled with its
glorious illustration and incisive commentary, is
unparalleled in mid -eighteenth- century Britain.
Bound and published in London in 1771, the
work's three hundred elaborate copper engraved,
hand- colored illustrations were struck and made
the names of the delineators and engravers appear. The majority of the plates were executed
by John Sebastian Miller, William Houston, and
R. Lancake. Sixteen drawings and one etching
were prepared by Georg Dionysius Ehret. John
and William Bartram produced a couple.
Ehret ( 1708 - 1770) was the most celebrated
botanical artist of the eighteenth century and
much sought after by compilers of horticultural
texts. He is famous for having worked on the
thirty eight plates in the Hortus Cliffortianus, a
catalog Linnaeus compiled of George Clifford's
garden in Holland. The Foundation is fortunate
which is in the pre Linnaean Latin polysyllabic
to have one volume of this work ( circa 1738) in
the rare -book collection, where one can view
Ehret's uncolored plates.
taxonomy, was written at about the same time.
This circumstance led Greene, Don McKel-
nation of the new Linnaean system of plant
available for sale to the public serially between
1755 and 1760. Presumably the commentary,
vey, and me to conclude that Miller, who adopted
Linnaean binomial nomenclature in his 1759,
Ehret was also important to the dissemi-
taxonomy. He drew and engraved a colored
tabella" representing Linnaeus's system of plant
reverted to polynomial Latin in his 1771 Figures.
taxonomy. The original colored drawing for the
engraving is in the collection of the Natural
However, examination of the plates themselves
History Museum in London.
seventh edition of the Gardeners Dictionary, had
and subsequent research revealed that the plates
Ehret, married to the sister of Miller's wife,
and commentary were produced between 1755
and 1760 and, consequently, reflected the anti-
worked only intermittently on Figures. In all,
he created the original drawings for twenty one
quated polynomial style.
plants in sixteen plates and cut his own copper-
In 1759, Miller republished his phenom-
plate for the second castor bean plant ( Ricinus
enally popular Gardeners Kalendar ( seventh edi-
communis) illustration.
tion) and with it adopted the binomial ( genus/
species) model that regularized botanical clas-
The following table summarizes Ehret's contri-
sification. If the majority of the commentary
bution to Miller's Figures:
Plate # Species
Date of draughtsman
imprint
and nomenclature and the work on the plates in
Figures were already completed by 1760, would
3.
Abutilon
1755
Ehret, pinxt.
that have made Figures an anachronism upon
3.
Abutilon
1755
Ehret, pinxt.
its completion? Would that forestall the project
5.
Acacia
1755
Ehret, pinxt
and account for only its later bound editions of
Acacia
1755
Ehret, pinxt.
1771? Was Figures stillborn? Would Figures have
4.
6.
Acacia
1755
Ehret, pinxt.
been, produced at some expense, an outdated
38.
Anthemis
1755
Ehret
extravagance?
48.
Arbutus
1755
Ehret, pinxt.
�35
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
57.
57.
Aster Carolinianus
1755
Ehret, pinxt.
Miller published prodigiously while serving as
Aster procumbens
1755
Ehret, pinxt
curator and gardener of the Chelsea Physic Gar-
68,
Borrago
1756
Ehret, pinxt
den. As mentioned earlier, he is best known not
82.
Cassia
1756
Ehret
for his splendid Figures but his encyclopedic Gar-
176.
Mesembryanthemum 1757
Ehret
176.
Mesembryanthemum 1757
Ehret
deners Dictionary, which went through eight editions. While the Gardeners Dictionary is packed
176.
Mesembryanthemum 1757.
Ehret
with practical horticultural advice and plant spe-
177.
Mesembryanthemum 1757
Ehret
177.
Mesembryanthemum 1757
Ehret
208.
Pinus
1758
Ehret, pinxt
cies, Figures is especially rewarding to work with
because of the beauty of the illustrations.
This fulsomely illustrated, handsomely
215.
Quercus
1758
Ehret
220.
Ricinus
1758
Ehret
leather bound two- volume work was seminal
to the research that I conducted over the past
219.
Ricinus
1758
Ehret
several years. Importantly, this botanical work
291.
Acacia
1759
Ehret
is written in English, and not the usual Latin
of most plant taxonomists. A third rail, so to
Much of Ehret's renown comes from the patron-
speak, between the herbal and the florilegium,
age of Dr. Jacob Trew, noted for his extensive
work, Plantae Selectae, issued in ten parts from
is the proliferation in the eighteenth century
1750 to 1773.
intended to inform the growing gardening pub-
Philip Miller's true fame stems from his
garden. Among the luminaries of British eighteenth- century horticulture, Miller was from
lic about the intricacies of gardening. Miller
in his immensely popular Gardeners Dictionary
does just that. The well- executed and colored
1722 until 1770 gardener and curator of the
engravings of Figures, in addition to its incisive
Chelsea Physick Garden, adjacent to London.
Le Rougetel notes, " Under his care and through
his enthusiastic introduction of new plants it
well above other plant encyclopedias of the era
of gardening manuals or dictionaries that were
scientific commentary, would have placed it
if its taxonomy had not been eclipsed by the
became the most richly stocked botanic garden
in Europe." 2 He was credited with making it the
Linnaean system.
premier botanical garden of its time in Europe.
from its target audience, the well educated intel-
Established by the Worshipful Society of
A clue to its hybrid character might be gleaned
lectual and social elite of the third quarter of the
Apothecaries of London in 1673, the Chelsea
eighteenth century. Figures is dedicated to John,
Physick Garden was intended to provide living
duke of Bedford, marquis of Tavistock, earl of
plants that constituted both the raw materials of
Bedford, etc. The work was patently intended
the apothecaries' trade and the tools for learning
for the pampered eyes of the elite, the minds of
that trade. " It was a garden above all for train-
curious readers, and the imaginations of fervent
Increasingly it provided a site for the
ing....
growing of plants used in medicines for correct
botanical, horticultural, and gardening aficiona-
identification by the Society's apprentices. "3
at its inception, the first sixty -two chapters and
plates are dedicated to those plants beginning
The son of a market gardener, Miller estab-
lished himself as a " florist," a trade that specialized in the production and development of
dos. Because of the ambitious nature of the work
with " A." As the work was reconceived, the
number of genera and species was reduced.
exuberant strains of carnation, tulip, auricula,
An important element in Figures is the
anemone, hyacinth, ranunculus, and polyan-
number of North American species included
thus. Such were his horticultural achievements
that he came to the attention of Sir Hans Sloane
1660- 1753), a stellar figure in his own right.
in the work: 57 out of 392 species presented
on 300 plates. When inspecting Figures for the
frequency of American provenances, plants
Sloane studied with the great de Toumefort at
the Royal Garden of Plants in Paris, obtained his
were not counted. While this approach excludes
degree of doctor of medicine from the University
species found in Central and South America as
of Orange in 1683, and served as physician to
well as the West Indies —admittedly a consider-
obtained outside the original thirteen colonies
the duke of Albemarle in Jamaica. There he
able portion of the content, it allows for a more
assembled the material that became Catalogus
focused study. Also revealing is information
Plantarum quae in Jamaica ( 1696).
Importantly
about the origins of specimens, including details
for Miller, Sloane purchased the Manor of Chel-
about some of the people ( " collector commen-
sea, including the Apothecaries' Garden. When,
tator" in the following chart) from whom Miller
in 1722, Sloane granted the entire physic garden
obtained new species as seed, slip, or plant, or
to the Apothecaries Company, Miller was ap-
the place of embarkation of a particular plant.
pointed foreman on Sloane's recommendation.
American species included:
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
36
Miller's
Botanical
Common
Collector
Oenothera
Oenothera
Evening
Name
species
Name
Commentator
3 kinds
sp.
Primrose
Abies
Abies
Fir
Banister
Oenothera
Acer
Acer rubrum Scarlet
Maple
Amorpha
Anona
Amorpha
fruticosa
Bastard
Asimia
Paw -paw
Oenothera
Catesby
Opuntia
Aquilegia
Primrose
Oenothera
Evening
Primrose
Opuntia sp. Prickly
Indigo
Pair Cactus
Catesby
Phlox
triloba
Aquilegia
Evening
sp.
Banister/
Catesby
Oenothera
sp.
balsemea?
Phlox
Summer Phlox
paniculata
Columbine
Phlox
Phlox divaric ata
Physalis
Physalis
canadensis
Asarina ?
PolemoniumPolemonium Jacob' s
Aster
Aster sp.
Aster
Aster
Catesby
Thomas Dale
reptans
Ptelia
Carolinanus 1
Basteria
Calycanthus
Ladder
Ptelia
Hop Tree
trifoliate
Sweetshrub Catesby
Pulmonaria Pulmonaria Lungwort
virginicus
Robinia
Cassine
Ilex sp.
Cassine
Catesby
holly?
Ceonothus Ceonothus
americanus
Rudbeckia Rudbeckia
Celtis
Celtis sp.
Chelone
Chelone sp. Turtlehead Catesby
Clethra
Clethra
Sweetpepper
virginica
Bush
Coreopsis
Coreopsis sp.
Tickseed
Crateagus
Crateagus sp. Hawthorn
Hackberry
Serratula
Solidago
Goldenrod
Spirea
Spireal
7
3 kinds
Filapenula?
Spirea
Spirea/
3 kinds
Bartram
Bush
Spirea
Bartram
Laurel
Lilium
Lily
Veratrum
Balsam Poplar
Veratrum
Virginia Bunch
Flower
Bartram
Viburnum Viburnum sp. Vibumum
Bartram
philadelphicum
Lupinus
Ontario
virginicum
Mountain
latifolia
Lupinus
Tacamahaca Populus
balsamifera
Hydrangea
Kalmia
Spireal
Filapenula
Smooth
arborescens
Lilium
Sawwort
Filapenula?
Helleborine ?
Kalmia
Side Saddle Flower
Solidago
Honeysuckle
Hydrangea Hydrangea
Sarracenia
sp.
exaltatum
Diervilla
Black eyed Susan
sp.
Tea
Sarracenia
Diervilla
Bristly Locust
hispida
New Jersey
Delphinium Delphinium Larkspur
Robinia
Three of Miller's sources, individuals traveling
and collecting in America at the behest of patrons in England, hold special interest: John Ban-
Lupine
ister ( 1650- 1692), Mark Catesby ( 1682- 1749),
perennis
and John Bartram ( 1699- 1777).
Magnolia
Magnolia sp. Magnolia
Media
Dodecatheon Shooting
Meadia
Star
Mespilus
Mespilus
1
Monarda
Monarda sp. Bee -balm
Monarda
Monarda sp.
Banister's name should be familiar to every
Banister
student of colonial American horticulture. Under
the patronage of Henry Compton ( 1632- 1713),
bishop of London, he acted as something between
an agent and liege of the bishop and undertook
a botanizing trip to Virginia in 1678. This trip
marked the beginning of a fourteen -year horticultural relationship with the bishop, who stocked
his impressive garden at Fulham Palace with many
�37
Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
Figures also deserves closer inspection because
each " American" entry is a story unto itself. For
example, the first entry demonstrates both the
occurrence of an American plant and the collec-
tor or naturalist who observed it. Chapter 1 is devoted to Abies, " The Fir or Spruce Tree." In the
commentary, Miller writes, " The Cones of these
Trees were sent from Virginia to England by Mr.
Banister, towards the End of the last Century;
and several of the Plants were raised in the gar-
dens of the Bishop of London at Fulham, those
of Mr. Reynardson at Helleddon, near Uxbridge,
and at Mr. Darby's Garden at Hoxton." The " Fir
or Spruce" entry is but the first of five entries
wherein Miller recognizes Banister as the intro-
ducer of new species to British horticulture.
Quickly on the heels of the Abies, or Fir Tree,
comes the Virginia Red Scarlet Maple, his Acer
Virginianum, folio majore, subius arenteeo supra
viridis splendente. The red or scarlet flowering
maple of Virginia was a tree, Miller says, that
was introduced to the North American main-
land by Banister first, where it was grown both
at the Fulham garden of the bishop of London
J
of Banister's introductions. Banister fell victim to
friendly fire in Virginia while botanizing in 1692.
Twenty years later, Catesby arrived in Virginia to visit his married sister in Williamsburg.
After seven years in tidewater, Catesby briefly
returned to England before resuming his travels
with a visit to the southern colonies and the Ba-
and Miller's garden at Chelsea.
Proceeding alphabetically, I quickly came
upon Amorpha, the bastard indigo. It was, for
the purposes of the grant, a hole in one. Miller
states that " the Seeds of this Plant were sent
from Carolina by Mr. Catesby in 1724, which
were sown in many Gardens; ... and now they
are pretty common in most of the Nursery- gardens about London." Upon closer inspection of
modern horticultural sources, Amorpha is said
hamas ( 1722- 1726). This expedition led to the
to hug the sandy coastlines of what has become
publication of The Natural History of Carolina,
Florida, and the Bahama Islands: containing two
hundred and twenty figures of birds, beasts, fishes,
known as the Carolinas.
serpents, insects, and plants, a splendid work also
in the Foundation's collection.
Bartram was another seminal figure in colo-
Anona follows on Amorpha by some pages.
Our pawpaw was various things for Miller:
Anona, Custard -Apple, Sour -Sop, Sweet
Sop, Water Apple & c. . . .
Commonly
called by the Inhabitants of North Ameri-
nial American horticulture. Self taught in Latin,
can PawPaw....
he was part of the heated horticultural gestalt
by Mr. Catesby, in his History of Caro-
This species is described
that saturated European intellectual culture.
lina, and the Bahama Islands....
The Royal Society honored botany as integral
Catesby says that this Tree seldom grows
to scientific thought. Bartram' s contributions
more than Ten or Twelve Feet high in that
to botany and to transatlantic plant exchange
earned him the title of botanist to the king. Fur-
country, with Stems as large as the Small
of a Man's Leg ... He also mentions that
the fruit is seldom eaten but by Negroes.
thermore, Bartram's connections on the English
side of the Atlantic were strong.
Peter Collinson, a London merchant and
Mr.
A startling discovery is the fact that Lord
Petre at Thorndon ( considered at the time one
dedicated plantsman, organized a syndicate with
of the most impressive estates in England) was
Miller, the duchess of Richmond, and Lord
not only growing guava, pineapple, gingers, and
Petre, which financed the plant explorations
limes in his stove houses, but pawpaw as well,
although the record is silent as to how it was
of Bartram in the New World. Ultimately,
Bartram's relationship and correspondence with
Collinson " led to about two hundred plants
being introduced into Europe from America. "4
used as a culinary item.
Other concurrences abound. Miller's Basteria
is none other than our Carolina allspice ( Ca-
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
38
lycanthus virginicus) , the usually spicy- scented
American shrub well known in southern Amer-
ican gardens. Miller is almost chatty when
writing about allspice: "
It was procured from
Carolina by Mr. Catesby, who says it grows at
a great Distance from the Settlements already
made in that country; but I have been informed,
that the Inhabitants of Charles Town have
propagated it their Gardens of late Years, so
have great Plenty of it there."
Once again, Catesby figures large in the acquisition of plants in regard to the troublesome,
but beautiful, American trumpet vine. Among
the American plants pictured in Figures that
must unhinge the uninitiated most is Miller's
Bignonia, our trumpet vine ( Campsis radicans),
a staple on fences in the Historic Area, grows
rampant in the wild. But its inarguable appeal,
due to the size and coloring of its vibrant orange
flowers, and its manageable size in the drizzly
English climate, must have convinced Miller to
devote one luscious folio page to the vine that
farmers and homeowners now call a weed. But
Miller's commentary is further illuminating, saying, " The Seeds of it were sent from Carolina in
1724 by Mr. Catesby, from which many plants
were raised." He comments on the native habit
of this invasive vine and its ability to climb trees
up to fifty or sixty feet.
Miller's inventory of American plants is diverse. Hop Tree ( Ptelea triloba) is rare, one speci-
says, " This plant grows naturally in Virginia, and
men of which can be found behind the Lewis
other Parts of North America, from whence it
House on Francis Street. Growing naturally in
Virginia, Miller says, it was discovered first by
was sent by Mr. Banister, many Years since, to Dr.
Compton, Bishop of London, in whose curious
Garden I first saw this Plant growing, which was
in the year 1709." Shooting star ( Miller's Meadia)
the Reverend Banister in the seventeenth cen-
tury. In the early eighteenth century Catesby
sent seeds to Britain gathered
in Carolina,
is a small woodland plant with pendulous pink
where " it was found growing in Plenty." Miller
allows that " There is no great Beauty in the
Flowers; but those who are curious in collecting
flowers from which its name is derived.
rare Trees and Shrubs, preserve it in their Gar-
the Mountains in North America. The seeds were
dens for the sake of Variety."
sent from Virginia by Mr. Banister many Years
It is a boon to the plant researcher when one
primary source leads to another primary source,
Of pulmonaria ( Pulmonaria offinalis) or lung wort, he reports, " This plant grows naturally on
since and some of the Plants were raised in the
Garden of the Bishop of London at Fulham."
or to two in fact, as in the case of the turtlehead
Of a blue aster, Miller writes, " This plant
Chelone sp.) or hummingbird flower. Miller
grows naturally in Virginia, from whence it was
testifies to the intrepid English traveler John
brought by the late Mr. Mark Catesby, about the
Josselyn' s ( fl. 1630 - 1675) seventeenth -century
year 1720, and given to Mr. Fairchild, Gardener
account of the turtlehead growing near Boston.
at Hoxton, who propagated it in great Plenty."
In a second nod to an avid plant collector,
He notes that it is perennial and that it flowers
Miller wrote in Figures, " the most beautiful, the
in October. Reaching consensus on the identity
Colour of the Flowers being a deep Red, and the
of this aster is difficult.
Flowers are somewhat larger than those of the
One of the most glorious illustrated pages of
white. This is the Second Sort mentioned in the
Figures features a double portrait of two red lilies, one of American extraction, the other the
Gardener's Dictionary [Miller's], which was sent
from Virginia by Mr. Clayton a few Years past."
Banister's contributions to Figures multiply. Of
the shooting star ( Dodecatheon Meadia), Miller
Carmine Lily of Byzantium." Of the American
lily, Miller says, " The Root of this Flower was
sent me by Mr. John Bartram from Philadelphia,
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
39
who found the Plant grown naturally in that
country." It is likely the Lilium philadelphicum.
Figures is interesting because it is a compilation of Banister's, Catesby's, and Bartram's roles
in collecting, identifying, and conveying plant
specimens to England; Ehret's and others' superb
draftsmanship; and Miller's botanical erudition.
Figures of the most beautiful, uncommon and useful
1 Hazel Le Rougetel, The Chelsea Gardener: Philip
Miller, 1691 - 1771 ( Portland, Ore.: Saga Press/ Timber Press,
1990).
2 Ibid.
3 Sue Minter, The Apothecaries' Garden: The New History of the Chelsea Physic Garden ( Stroud, Eng.: Sutton,
2003), 2.
4 Le Rougetel, Chelsea Gardener, 68.
plants is a rare treasure worthy of more investi-
gation. Its beauty, its botanical acumen, and its
availability in Colonial Williamsburg's collection make it a valuable and memorable resource
for plant researchers.
multiple references for each item. Most of the
sources can be found in Colonial Williamsburg's
John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library.
Interpreter' s
Corner
In compiling the lists, I confirmed what I already
knew and discovered new things. For example,
A measuring device used by the wheelwright
is commonly referred to as a traveler. I never
What
found the word traveler in any eighteenth century references. ( The Oxford English Dic-
Are Your
tionary gives first reference of this usage as
Sources?
1879- 1881.)
Emery paper was used in eighteenth- century
by Jim Hollins
Virginia.
The term spatula was not associated with
in the Department of
hearth -cooking tools.
The word spider showed up in hearth- cooking
What're your sources ?" Have you ever been
A common term in Virginia for a device that
asked, or have you ever asked someone, that ques-
allowed a pot to be positioned over the fire in
Jim is a historical interpreter
School and Group Services.
tools.
tion? If you deal in history, I'm sure you have. In
a kitchen was pot rack. In Norfolk County it
one's quest to be accurate, primary sources play
an important part in the interpretation of history.
was referred to as a trammel.
The finding aids also allow you to compile
When you can point out one or more references
lists of such tools as locks, nails, brushes, and
in historical documents that substantiate your
tools and enjoy studying them— particularly
baskets, resulting in an idea of the variety of
tools used in eighteenth -century Virginia.
Recently, Jay Gaynor, director of Historic
Trades, offered to computerize the finding aids.
those used in eighteenth- century Virginia. I
Thanks to Diane Hudgins, administrative spe-
story, you are able to establish credibility quickly.
I have been a longtime collector of antique
spent several years developing a list of tools
cialist, they are now available to Colonial
and tool related items identified in eighteenth -
Williamsburg employees on CD and hard copy.
century Virginia primary sources. This has developed into several finding aids for tools and
hearth cooking equipment. There are often
If you would like to take a look at them, contact
Diane at the Margaret Hunter Workshop ( extension 7108).
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
40
New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr.
Library' s Special Collections
Camerarius, Joachim. Symbolorum et Emblema-
only as a " Pennsylvania Farmer,"
tum ex re Herbaria Desumtorum Centuria una
counsels leaders on both sides of the Atlantic
Collecta ( Frankfurt: Johannis Ammong, 1605).
conceming the economic folly and unconstitutionality of new British revenue laws ignoring
rights of Englishmen living in the colonies.
This Lutheran theologian, physician, and botanist maintained an extensive botanical garden
the
work
in Nuremburg, Germany. The work is a condensation of the original four volume collection of
Doddridge, Joseph. Notes, on the Settlement and In-
emblems showing plants and animals. Various
dian Wars, of the Western Parts of Virginia &
significances and associations of birds, insects,
flowers, fruits, etc., are explained. The work is
sylvania ( Wellsburgh, Va.: Office of the Gazette,
among the first botanical emblem books to be
which are thought to have influenced the design
and provides a description of the society and manners of the early settlers in the region. Topics include Native Americans, flora and fauna, slavery,
of early- American currency.
and noteworthy personalities.
Channing, William Ellery. Slavery ( Boston:
This Unitarian clergy-
Galloway, Joseph. Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of American Independence ( London: J. Wilkie, 1780). In this work,
illustrated with copperplate engravings, some of
James Munroe, 1835).
man and author, a one -time resident of Rich-
Penn-
1824). This book covers the period 1763 - 1783
mond, Virginia, was dedicated to developing
a Maryland native and loyalist strongly supports
the full potential of all mankind and supported
prompted this volume, which condemns slavery
retaining union with England and advocates
a council elected by the Revolutionary colonial assemblies, which would be overseen by a
and demonstrates its ethical indefensibility.
president general appointed by the king.
universal education. A visit to the West Indies
Debates in Both Houses of Parliament on the Ar-
Historical and Political Reflections on the
ticles of Peace ( London: S. Bladon, 1783). This
book includes discussions concerning ending
Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion ( Lon-
hostilities with America and documents talks on
February 17, 1783. Speeches by various members of both bodies outline the common position
that peace should be recommended to the king.
After briefly considering abdication, George III
agreed. The Treaty of Paris, officially ending the
Revolutionary War, was signed later that year.
don: G. Wilkie, 1780). The author moved to
Philadelphia and became active in Pennsylvania
political life. A member of the First Continental Congress, he later fled to England where he
wrote this loyalist interpretation of Revolutionary activities.
Hamilton, Alexander. Colonel Hamilton's Second
Letter, from Phocion to the Considerate Citizens
Dickinson, John. New Essay on the Constitutional Power of Great -Britain over the Colonies in
America ( London: J. Almon, 1774). Dickinson
of New -York ( Philadelphia: Robert Bell, 1784).
The Federalist leader and future secretary of
was a Philadelphia lawyer and delegate to the
the treasury writes under the name of an ancient Athenian Platonist philosopher, support-
First Continental Congress who opposed sepa-
ing compliance with the 1783 peace treaty with
ration from England and worked to temper the
the British. He also addresses the nature of civil
language of the delegates so that reconciliation
liberties and advocates ending attacks on Tory
might remain possible. Identifying the author
sympathizers and their property.
�Vol. 29, No. 1, Spring 2008
41
Journal of the Proceedings of Congress ( London:
actually do not and observed that " no law in
J. Almon, 1778). This is the first British edition
conflict with natural law is valid and that judges
of these crucial journals, covering the proceed-
have no obligation to enforce such naturally
ings after the outbreak of hostilities but before
invalid law." Phillips, an American abolitionist,
the writing of the Declaration of Independence.
criticizes the work for not supporting antislavery
A bookplate bears the armorial crest of the
ideals in stronger terms, and, stating that the
Lowther family.
republic had been governed by slaveholders
throughout its history, identifies the Constitu-
Letter to the Inhabitants of the Province of Quebec
Philadelphia: William &
tion as a proslavery compact.
Thomas Bradford,
1774). This extract from the minutes of the
Continental Congress invites the Canadian
Price, Richard. Observations on the Nature of Civil
Liberty ( Philadelphia: John Dunlap, 1776). Price,
province to unite with its southern neighbors
a Welsh, nonconformist minister and political
against the unjust demands of England. Del-
philosopher already known for his sermons,
strongly disapproved of the war between England
egates are invited to join their fellow citizens
of North America at the Congress held in
Philadelphia in May 1775. This work bears
and the colonies. A friend and correspondent of
both Franklin and Jefferson, his work encouraged
the signature of John Leeds, a public official,
Americans to declare independence.
surveyor, and mathematician living in Talbot
County, Maryland.
Macaulay, Catharine. Address to the People of
England, Ireland, and Scotland ( New York: John
Holt, 1775). A correspondent of George Washington's, the author was called " the woman of
the greatest abilities that this country has ever
produced" by Mary Wollstonecraft. Macaulay
was a historian and staunch defender of Ameri-
Propositions of Colonel Hamilton, of New York,
in the Convention for Establishing a Constitutional
Government for the United States ( Pittsfield,
Mass.: Phinehas Allen, 1802). This pamphlet
also contains a summary of the political opinions of President John Adams, together with
a comparison of the fundamental differences
between the country's two major political parties —the Federalists, represented by writings of
can rights and roused the British to defend their
John Adams, and the Republicans, as set forth
own interests against governmental oppression
by Samuel Adams.
as well.
Quarles, Francis. Divine Poems ( London: Miles
Military commission: Written from the British
headquarters in New York, Gen. Sir William
Howe appoints Richard St. George Mansergh
Flesher, 1634). The author, an English poet,
studied law at Cambridge and Oxford univer-
St. George as lieutenant in the 52nd Regi-
sities and began his literary life as an author
of poems paraphrasing several books of the
ment of Foot on December 23, 1776. Commis-
Old Testament. Divine Poems first appeared in
sions issued in America are rare. A member of
1630 and contained edifying lessons concerning
the Anglo Irish landed gentry, St. George was
painted by Thomas Gainsborough shortly before
leaving for America, where he was wounded at
Jonah, Esther, and Job, together with sonnets
inspired by the Song of Solomon celebrating the
mystical marriage of Christ and the church.
the Battle of Germantown.
The Objections to the Taxation of Our American
Seabury, Samuel. The Congress Canvassed: or, an
Examination into the Conduct of the Delegates, at
their Grand Convention ( New York: n.p., 1774).
Colonies ( London: J. Wilkie, 1765). This work
appeared the same year that the Stamp Act
Addressed to the merchants of New York, this
went into effect and studies the issues that the
work
act raised concerning the colonists' right to tax
A. W. Farmer ( i. e., a Westchester farmer). A
themselves versus arbitrary taxation by the Brit-
Church of England rector in New Jersey and
New York, Seabury was arrested in 1775 for his
ish Parliament.
was
published
under
the
pseudonym
of
staunch loyalist sympathies. The work seeks to
Phillips, Wendell. Review of Lysander Spooner's
convince merchants that prohibiting impor-
Essay on the Unconstitutionality of Slavery ( Bos-
tation of English goods will only redound to
ton: Andrews & Prentiss, 1847). Spooner's work
tion supported the institution of slavery. He used
their detriment and economically impair them.
Seabury remained in America and became the
first consecrated bishop in the Protestant Epis-
legal and natural law to support the interpreta-
copal Church in the United States.
discussed whether the United States Constitu-
tion that clauses appearing to support slavery
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
42
Sharp, Granville. Declaration of the People' s Natural Right to a Share in the Legislature ( New York:
Letter to Edmund Burke, Esq. ( Gloucester, Eng.: R. Raikes, 1775). The author, while
John Holt, 1774). Sharp, a noted biblical scholar
and abolitionist, provides a strong argument for
hostile to the Americans, advocated declar-
popular representation. The original work was
attacked Tucker' s writings as " childish,"
sent to America by Benjamin Franklin and widely
reprinted. Some have found verbal and conceptual similarities with Jefferson's subsequent work
eliciting this rather harsh fulmination against
the former's plan of pacification by recognizing
the authority of the Continental Congress to
on the Declaration of Independence.
legislate for the colonies.
ing the colonies independent. Edmund Burke
thus
Tucker, Josiah. Cui Bono? or, an Inquiry, what
The Universal Magazine ( London: Stephen Cum -
benefits can arise either to the English or the Ameri-
berlege), vol. 72, June 1783. This issue contains
The
the orders issued by George Washington to his
cans ( Gloucester, Eng.: R. Raikes, 1781).
author, an English economist, political writer,
troops on the arrival of the information that the
and dean of Gloucester, argues that all countries
preliminaries of peace had been agreed upon
will be losers in any war and advises Americans
between America and England. Issued from
that their independence is an idle and visionary
Chatham, New York, on April 18, 1783, the
notion. Their fate, he predicts, will be to be-
document orders a cessation of hostilities to
come " a disunited People till the End of Time."
begin the next day.
However, he divides the colonies into the region
between Connecticut and the Hudson River and
the Carolinas and Georgia as loyalist areas, while
Submitted by George Yetter, associate curator for
advising independence for the remainder.
John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library.
EDIT
the architectural drawings and research collection,
S
N
Correction: Wesley Greene noted an error in the " Q & A" segment in the
Fall 2007/ Winter 2008 issue. It concerned the yew tree at Custis Square and
stated that John Bartram recorded seeing yews there in 1769. Bartram visited
Williamsburg in 1739, not 1769.
�Publication of
this issue of the Interpreter
was made possible
by a gift from
James H. and Sherry P. Hubbard
of Severna Park, Maryland
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter is published three
times a year by the Historic Area Division.
Editor:
Nancy Milton
Copy Editors:
Mary Ann F Williamson
Beth Smizik
Assistant Editor: Linda Rowe
Editorial Board:
Emma L. Powers
Planning Board: Laura Arnold, Harvey Bakari,
Bertie Byrd, Bob Doares,
Jan Gilliam, Wesley Greene,
Andrea Squires, John Turner,
Ron Warren, Pete Wrike
Production:
The Marketing Creative
Services Department
Diana Freedman
2008 The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. All rights reserved.
All images are the property of
The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, unless otherwise noted.
��
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter, volume 29, number 1, Spring 2008
Description
An account of the resource
Mary Powell Charlton: Sampler, Portrait, Bible, and Family -- New Orleans and the American Revolution -- Cook’s Corner: Go Fish! -- Questions and Answers -- As the Dust Settles (A Department of Archaeological Research Update): Rediscovering Ravenscroft -- The Silver Skull Plate: Samuel Clark's Career as a Teenage Militiaman in the Revolutionary War -- The Bothy’s Mould: Figures of the Most Beautiful, Useful and Uncommon Plants… -- The Interpreter's Corner: What Are Your Sources? -- New at the Rock: New Items in the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library's Special Collections
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/45914/archive/files/ff0b0c819994b0c3ee689fafc47f4df9.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=H-somc2eP3yQCQoxAV8Yv-YuYUeputCJ9UrumWRLCJibqQh5dhHRZQ6gX3vfkEGOa3j4N1BsojHwsVn%7EhW8OFr567iD3eRRfN4juboGAP9edv3ewaqsQf9Z%7EclUD0sRGGEmW8ItKlF6J36k7qvAeG-udQkhodGc%7EMkqC-CKeGiYv5laRG2knbL5vZ7EIYSaYbIi4wmGwMEHpXConC0ZEOibnIQmfzk9jmt0HBqnvtpP1TCgdJEADl85mLGx14RDfWWaoDzM2%7EN%7EFVF8v5ZvL5QSurifgkJT6-C7YHhcNom8B1Xvbjulis2nCyIl-5xdlNscKeNmO-9vxrhJbemaljw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
f872f94adc7e0b88508d97937228080d
PDF Text
Text
COLONIAL
WILLIAMSBURG
FALL 2007/ WINTER 2008
VOL. 28, NO. 3
Dohicky Arundel: A Documentary History
by Samuel K. Fore
Born Louis O'Hicky d' Arundel in the Alsace
Formerly a special collections and reference librarian
at the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library, Sam is cur-
rently curator of rare books and manuscripts at the
Harlan Crow Library in Dallas, Texas, and maintains a decided interest in the era of the American
Revolution.
region of France, he was the son of Thomas,
a lieutenant colonel of the French regiment
de Berg. He attended the military academy in
Strasbourg and, in 1768, was an artillery officer
candidate. His studies were interrupted in 1770
with the death of his father, and he contemplated his future. But later that year, he was
transferred to Sante Domingue as a volunteer.
History hasn't been particularly kind to Do-
He was commissioned a second lieutenant in
hicky Arundel. Perhaps it is due to the fact
that there is very little known about him. E. G.
June 1771 and would later be promoted to the
Swem's voluminous Virginia Historical Index has
of the French crown.2 For reasons unknown,
he ventured to North America during the early
no entries for him. There are very few references
to him in the writings of the day, and even then
only the mention of his unfortunate demise at
the Battle of Gwynn's Island in the correspon-
dence of general -grade officers and high- ranking
government officials.
Committee of Safety vice president John
Page, for example, proclaimed, " no one seems to
regret the Loss of Arundel, who lost his Life by
the bursting of a wooden Mortar which was fool-
ishly constructed and he obstinately persisted in
his Resolution to fire, though dissuaded from it
by every one who saw it." Alexander Purdie put
it a little more eloquently when he printed, "His
zeal for the service lost him his life. "1 Just who
was this man, Dohicky Arundel?
rank of first lieutenant in the military service
months of the War for Independence.
New York delegate to the Continental Congress Francis Lewis recommended Arundel —
as
he signed himself — the Continental Congress
to
on January 6, 1776. Recognizing that his military skills would be very useful, he was screened
by Benjamin Franklin and Col. Arthur St. Clair,
who deemed that Arundel be put into military
service. Arundel was to be sent to the New York
Department of the Continental Army.3
However, a letter of introduction from Dr.
Franklin to Maj. Gen. Charles Lee seems to
have changed those plans. On March 18, 1776,
Congress directed Arundel to repair to the
Southern Department, under the command of
General Lee, with a captain's commission and
orders to raise a company of artillery.4
Also in this Issue .
Bochys!CIOuld
Unbeknown to both Lee and Arundel, the
w
A% rylieedfulWork
Virginia committee of safety had already appointed a commander of the state' s sole com-
pany of artillery, Capt. James Innes. Due to his
inexperience or, better yet, the promise of a pro-
Q; 2nAF.?', by * " D* es ,„ •{ .
B
Aicli*eology a5 Jamestawn bj; IC:, Gova n
ABtahain`oeBarliad'o`s by P.`; rilte '
W
New ofthe Rock -'New Items it fp=
Special Collections " byG Yetter.'...; t
motion to major, Captain Innes graciously resigned shortly thereafter, and Arundel assumed
command. With his experience and ardor, Lee
was confident that Arundel would soon make
the unit "fit for service. "5 With the exception of
an advertisement for recruits in Purdie's Virginia
Gazette for May 24, 1776, the current documentary record reveals nothing of the activities of
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
2
Williamsburg the 27th of June 1776
Captain Arundel until the Battle of Gwynn's
Island in early July 1776.
General
The comprehensive listing of original docu-
Permit me to add my voice to that of a
ments from nineteenth- and twentieth cen-
public who loves you who misses you and
who no longer breathes until the moment
tury auction catalogs —American Manuscripts,
1763 - 1815 — lists only one record of a letter
written by Dohicky Arundel. The letter still
exists, albeit in very fragile condition, in the private collections of the James S. Copley Library
in La Jolla, California. Though addressed only to
which will return you to my eyes. I would
wish that in the accounts which I am to
give you of my department I were happy
enough to be able to do so viva voce. Your
presence General is most necessary to us.
General," it can easily be assumed that the recipient was his commander, Maj. Gen. Charles
Lee. Translated from the French, his long letter
is printed here, so that we may read his words
The Ship has need of a good pil ot; the ship
is here but unfortunately the pilot is not.
and, perhaps, draw new conclusions.
a courtesan, I am a soldier and truthful-
I flatter myself that I am sufficiently well
known to you not to be suspected of being
ness is my first guide.
Timeline
February —
April 1776 —Capt. James Innes
recruiting and training an artillery
June 27, 1776— Writing from
Williamsburg, Dohicky Arundel,
company formed by the Virginia
Captain Commander of the Virginia
Council.
Artillery, explains to Gen. Charles
Lee his difficulties and successes in the
March 18, 1776— Congress directs
effort to acquire munitions and artillery
Capt. Dohicky Arundel to the Southern
transport. " He purchased every piece
Department under command of
that could be spared from posts around
the tidewater to assemble a battery of
Gen. Charles Lee with orders to raise a
company of artillery. Innes resigns his
impressive firepower: two eighteen -
commission in the artillery in favor of
pounders, two twelve -pounders, five
Arundel.
nine pounders, three six pounders, and
May 15, 1776 —Fifth Virginia Convention
unanimously adopts resolution
two field pieces." ( John E. Selby, The
Revolution in Virginia [Williamsburg, Va.:
19881, 125.)
instructing the colony's delegates in
the Continental Congress to introduce
a motion for independence. Captain
June 29, 1776 —The Convention adopts
a constitution for the independent
Arundel was probably in command of
Virginia and elects Patrick Henry its
the artillery company that discharged
first governor.
cannon and small arms fire when the
British flag was struck from the Capitol
and a Continental hoisted in its place.
Jane Carson, James Innes and His
July 6, 1776— Patrick Henry is
inaugurated as the first governor of the
Commonwealth of Virginia.
Brothers of the F. H. C. [ Williamsburg,
Va.: 1965], 91.)
July 9, 1776— American gunners take
only about an hour to drive the British
May 26, 1776— Dunmore sails to Gwynn's
Island in Mathews County, Virginia.
June 12, 1776 —Fifth Virginia Convention
passes the first Declaration of Rights
adopted in America.
and Lord Dunmore's loyalist troops off
Gwynn's Island. Dohicky Arundel, who
died in the firing of an experimental
wooden mortar, is the one casualty on
the American side.
�3
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/ Winter 2008
I have not as yet been able to complete
entirely my campaign and I am persuaded
General that it is not my fault, but it has
been impossible in consideration of the
good of the service to leave an officer
for a long time in charge of this trust
t
which depends on me providing that I shall
be allowed to do what is my job and merit
your approbation. I must admit, General,
that it has been very difficult for me after
having the command of a detachment
which marched to the camp and being
seeing that it was not succeeding.
assured that I would find everything
You know that I am not permitted
ready to discover that far from
this nothing had been begun and
that I was in danger of being dishon-
in accordance with your orders
to take anyone from the Infantry
and I have even
ored and unable to
been refused two
give any service to
or
three
offi-
the county. The
cers who had
management of
served in the
the powder and
Artillery. I arrived this morning from
the camp near Gwins Island where I re-
of the military supplies has been refused by
the commandant of the camp and I also had
mained for ten days. I spared neither care,
the unpleasantness of finding that the orders
nor pains, nor fatigue to have everything
necessary to defend this section which is
which I had given relative to the guard and to
besieged by the fleet of Lord Dunmore.
served despite the suitable orders which I had
But it has been in vain that I did everything
that depended on me to put everything in
given to my sentinel but he was not in a posi-
order in short time. There is neither order
of the magazine Lin Williamsburg] had the
nor regularity in what concerns the works
needed for the public service. At the end of
impertinence to say that I was giving myself
too much authority because I had taken the
liberty to order that after the retreat no one
ten days I did not see myself in the slight-
the security of the powder had not been ob-
don to execute them. Furthermore the guard
est bit advanced than on the first day. The
reason is simple — I cannot make myself
should enter the powder magazine unless he
obeyed as to the orders I give relative to the
works we need. There be no order in this
tion of if he entered going without light. He
pretended that his key was to serve as countersign and was in very bad humor because
my sentinel who knows a little about military
service did not wish to recognize his key.
matter. The workmen do what they please
and undertake work which they are then
not in a position to do. I will give you only
had the countersign, and adding the precau-
one example. The man who undertook to
Permit me also General to note that it
make the gun carriages for the cannons
which were to be used at Gwins Island
is always very disagreeable for me to see
works, it is said that he is doing it, six
of the committee under pretext that these
weeks to do a work which I can assure you
cannons belong to the province and that
he could have finished in six days if he had
wished to work or if someone had obliged
Congress has none. This alone is capable
him to do it. As it is a matter of bad will
entirely I suppose that one should for the
good of the service have orders relative to
this matter.
Our Batteries could have been completed
ten days ago if I had been allowed to do
my job. I do not promote anything which I
my cannons removed every day by order
of denying much to the service because it
could happen as it did effectively happen
one time to me that having a list of all the
cannons which are in the various sections
of the province I need to have them transported from one section to another and at
the moment that this happens to find that
the cannons have been removed without
am not in a position to make good and am
my having been informed which can do me
in a position to do when it is desired — the
a great wrong in the particular case and
in general to the service without I being at
calculation or estimate is very clear. Now
fifteen days which we have lost and from
fault. Since your departure nearly a third
of the cannons have been removed for the
ships without my having known anything
which the enemy will have profited. I was
obliged to come here myself in order to have
about it until the moment when I needed
them and I no longer found them where
we have ten days lost and five or six will
pass before we are ready. There surely are
orders in conformity, which those we need
they were supposed to be. The Battery of
I leave tomorrow and I shall neglect nothing
Jamestown has been and is still entirely
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
4
dismantled. You will understand General
reimbursed to me. I beg you to heed my
that it is very hard after all the pains I took
prayer on this subject. I do not ask for
to mount this battery, to place the cannons
more than will maintain me honorably but
in position to find them removed in order to
place them on the ships. In six more weeks
the stipends about which Congress spoke
to me hardly suffice for fifteen days in view
we shall be an Artillery Corps without cais-
of the expenses which I have been obliged
to carry in my condition in the regiment. I
sons that is to say a corps without soul.
In advising you of all these inconve-
leave all this to you.
I beg the favour of you General to be so
niences of which you will readily understand the consequences I would consider
good to let me have an answer so soon it is
it a marked favor on your part General,
possible, as I want nothing as for the good
if you would have the kindness which
of the Service, I hope you'll be so kind to
this
take that matter in Consideration I' ll spar
no trouble and no fatigue to do all what is
subject in order that I may know which
in my power but should be very Glad to
is Artillery which is at my disposition and
that the Artillery, in my department will be
alone under my orders, that nothing is to
do it under your Command, all will your
bears upon the service as well as my own
satisfaction to give
your orders on
be transported without my being informed,
that all the military effects and the powder
be under my management or under that
appear me more easy if that should happen. I' ll pray you' ll be convinced of that
and of the Regard and Respect with which
I Remain,
General,
Your most humble servant,
of the commanding officers in my absence
in my entire department according to your
Dohicky Arundel
Capt. Commander of the Virginia
Artillery
proper orders where there will be a certain
number of carpenters and of marshals
Williamsburg the 27th ofJune 1776
here only for the Artillery and who will
be under my direction. I shall be held re-
From the collection of
sponsible immediately to the commanding
The James S. Copley Library.)
officer or to the General if he is there for all
that I have done or caused to be done and
that I shall these preceding articles. If after
that I am found to be at fault blame will
fall only on me and only I will be to blame.
It is the only way to act otherwise it is impossible ever to do anything which seems to
do well, however many pains I take.
I repeat General my excuses for the
length of my letter but the importance of
the subject will readily excuse what has
been said too bluntly. My zeal for the service and for good order is the only reason.
1 Julian P. Boyd, ed., Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 1
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1950), 468 - 470,
Particular account of the attack and rout of Lord Dunmore,"
Virginia Gazette ( Purdie), July 19, 1776, p. 3.
2 Gilbert Bodinier. Dictionnaire des officiers de farm€¢
royale qui ont combatlu aux Etats -Unis pendant la guerre
d' Independance, 1776 - 1783. ( Vincennes: Ministre de la
defense ... ,
1982), 366, and Les Officiers de l'ann€e royale
combattants de la guerre d' lndependance des Etats -Unis: de
Yorktown a l' an II. (Vincennes: Service historique de I'Armee
de terre, 1983), 142 - 143.
3 Worthington C. Ford, ed., Journals of the Continental
Dare I add to all this that you have the
Congress, vol. 4 ( Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
kindness to remember the promise which
Printing Office, 1906), 58n, and Paul H. Smith, ed., Letters
of Delegates to Congress, vol. 3 ( Washington, D.C.. Library
you had given me to augment my Corps
to 150 men and two officers of whom
one is Mr. Pierce and also the salaries
and those of my officers which were to
be settled. They are overdue by over two
months and they need them. As for myself
of Congress: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1978),
108 - 109 and 203 - 204.
4 William B. Willcox, ed., Papers of Benjamin Franklin,
vol. 12 ( New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982),
342 -343, and Ford, ed., Journals of the Continental Congress,
4: 211 - 212.
I have not drawn at all since I am here
and I am waiting to know what I am to
expect before drawing since the date of
and " The Lee Papers, Vol. I, 1754- 1776," Collections of the
my commission as well as my rations and
New - ork Historical Society for the Year 1871 ( New York:
Y
the expenses of my trip from Philadrlphia
to here which you had promised would be
5 Julian P. Boyd, ed, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 1
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1950), 288 -290,
Printed for the Society, 1872), 479.
�5
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/Winter 2008
Bothy's Mould
Presenting the latest dirt ( mould)
from the gardener's hut ( bothy).
A Very Needful Work"
The Gardener's Calendar, 1787
by Wesley Greene
o„ „me, and u.,nv,
Elder records in the Natural History ( circa
Wesley is a garden historian in the Landscape
Department. You can often find him in costume in
73 cE): " There is no doubt that it is proper to
the Colonial Garden across the street from Bruton
have gardens adjoining the farm -house and that
they should be irrigated preferably by a river
Parish Church.
Should
an
interstellar
cartographer
pass
through our solar system, it is certain that he,
she, or it would describe our small, blue orb
as the " water planet." It is our most abundant
and most precious resource. It has also been
the single most important limiting feature to
gardening throughout human history, and it
was around the transportation of water that our
earliest inventions revolve.
flowing past them, if it so happens, or if not, be
supplied with water from a well by means of a
wheel ...
or ladled up by swing- beams.”
Pliny also distinguishes the quality of water
from various sources: " the most useful for the
purpose being water from streams, which is
extremely cool and very sweet to drink; water
from a pond or brought by a conduit is not so
useful, because it carries with it the seeds of
weeds. However, it is rain that nourishes plants
The shaduf ( or swipe) is often pointed to as
the world's first simple machine, invented by the
best, as rain-water also kills insects that breed
ancient Assyrians sometime before 2200 BCE. It
The benefit of rainwater over all other
is made of an upright, forked pole into which
sources has long been recognized, and gardeners
to this day see improved growth after a rain that
cannot be duplicated with water from the tap.
This has nothing to do with the insecticidal
properties or any of the other fantastic attributes
a horizontal pole is set with one end bearing
a bucket and the other end a counterweight.
The bucket is then dipped ( or swiped) into the
water. The mechanical advantage afforded by
the counterweight makes it easier to swing the
bucket around to irrigation ditches or reservoirs.
A single man can move approximately 600
gallons of water per day with the shaduf.
The Assyrian king Sennacherib, who ruled
between 705 and 681 BCE, is often credited
with inventing a system of buckets mounted on
on them."
that have been assigned to rainwater over the
centuries.
Nitrogen is the most abundant element
in our atmosphere, making up 78 percent
by volume of the air we breathe. Rainwater,
particularly during thunderstorms, washes down
significant levels of readily available nitrogen,
a conveyer belt or chain that raised water from
and it is this that produces the luxuriant growth
one level to the next in the hanging gardens
you see after a summer thunderstorm.
It is remarkable how often people from
of Babylon. Archimedes ( 287 - 212 BCE)
the eighteenth century and before seem
improved on this with the invention
to intuitively understand processes for
which they did not have the technology
to test scientifically. Philip Miller
of the Archimedes screw, which is
still used to raise water from one
level to a higher level. Ctesibius
285 - 222
BcE),
a
Greek
t.t11ti1itlttUnnmii; ii ;;
observed in the 1759 edition
scientist and contemporary of
of The Gardeners Dictionary
Archimedes', is credited with
that " Rain water, which seems
to be the purest of all those we
inventing the double -action lever
pump for drawing water from wells
know of, is replete with infinite
Exhalations of all Kinds, which it
imbibes from the Air."
at about the same time the Romans
began constructing their famous
The quality of water for irrigation
aqueducts.
has long been judged by its source.
All early writers on horticulture
stress the importance of having a
reliable source of water. Pliny the
uttrittipiit
„-
River water is generally preferred over
pond water; they are both preferred
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
6
over well water. Thomas Hill, who wrote The
Gardener's Labyrinth in 1577, England's first
garden book, cautions us about well water: " But
if the Gardener be forced to use Wel- water,
Richard Bradley advised in the Dictionarium
botanicum ( 1728) that " the Evening in the
hotter Season, is the most proper Time for that
Operation, because that the Water will then
drawn especially out of a deep Well, or the
have Time enough to mix itself with the Earth,
water out of some pit: he ought then to let the
before the too scorching Heat of the Sun can
same drawn up, stand for two or three daies
exhale it, or occasion it to scald the Roots of
together, or at the least for certain hours in the
open aire, to be warmed of the Sun."
the Plants, which would be the Case, if we
The belief that water taken directly from
a well is harmful to plants was
water Plants in the Heat of the Day."
We carried this wisdom with us to
America. Robert Squibb ( The Gardener's
Calendar, 1787) advised gardeners
repeated in almost all garden
three
in the Carolinas: " This work
hundred years. Philip Miller
should be done always in the
wrote
evening about two hours before
sun -set that the water may have
works
for
in
the
the
next
1759
edition
of The Gardeners Dictionary:
time enough to soak in before
Where Kitchen Gardens are supplied
with Water from Wells, there should be
a Contrivance of large Cisterns; into
which the water should be raised, to be
exposed to the Sun and Air some Time
before it is used, for the Rawness of this
Water, when fresh drawn from Wells, is not
agreeable to the growth of Vegetables."
the sun comes on the plant the
next day."
Traditions
that
endure
for
hundreds of years almost always
have a basis in truth or practicality.
Other than in the cultivation of tropical plants,
well water
temperature or " rawness"
is not
Richard Bradley agreed in the Dictionarium
a consideration for garden plants. The real
botanicum ( 1728), but gave us a remedy should
we not have the leisure of letting the water
benefit of allowing water to stand during the
stand in cistems: " Pump -Water from a deep
well is not proper for plants till it has been
exposed for some time to the Air and Sun, or
thrown into it
else has had a little Earth ...
day and watering at night is avoiding the
excessive evaporation that daytime watering
produces. On a hot day in July, you can lose 50
which will correct its Rawness."
percent or more to evaporation. When water is
hauled from wells, this translates to hundreds of
pounds of water lost to evaporation.
It is not entirely clear what is meant by
rawness in the water source. It may be the
practice, is not harmful to most plants. There
Watering during the day, while a wasteful
colder temperature as cold water, imprudently
consumed, was considered unhealthful for
people in the eighteenth century. An incident
that occurred in August 1771 in the city of New
York was recorded in the September 5, 1771,
are, however, some exceptions for which the
edition of Rind's Virginia Gazette: " Tuesday last
Work is best done in an Evening, and thereby
a woman in this city, being in a perfect state of
health, having drank a draught of cold water,
will be dry by the rooming."
was suddenly seized with a fit, and expired in a
few minutes after. The Thursday following one
a sunny day; melons are even more sensitive.
John Randolph of Williamsburg cautioned
Smith, who was a crier at a vendue -house in
about watering melons in A Treatise on
this town, in drinking cold water, when he was
Gardening: " Watering is very requisite, but in
overheated, was soon after taken ill, and died a
much smaller quantities than Cucumbers, and
short time afterwards."
the water should be laid on at a distance from
eighteenth- century wisdom holds true. Batty
Langley notes in New Principles of Gardening
1728): " Whenever you water cucumbers ..
you wet their leaves as little as possible, which
Cucumbers do, indeed, resent wet foliage on
What time of day the water was applied was
equally as important as its source. Pliny tells us
the stems."
in the Natural History: " For gardens the times for
that melons should be watered in trenches that
border the beds rather than over the top of the
foliage. It is a well known fact among gardeners
watering are in the morning and the evening, so
that the water may not be heated by the sun. It
only suits basil to water it at midday." This is a
long -held maxim for watering the garden that
Most eighteenth- century writers advised
today that a wet season at the time melons are
ripening will destroy the vines in just a few
holds true today, although our understanding of
why morning and evening watering is preferable
days. For this reason, hoops were fashioned over
has changed over the centuries.
gardens so that they could be covered during
the melon beds in better eighteenth -century
�7
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/ Winter 2008
rain storms. Randolph advised, " They ought to
be covered in all hard rains. The frames should
not be too heavy. Many use laths in imitation
of covered wagons."
It is hard for a twenty- first century gardener
to imagine what a difficult task watering was
in the eighteenth century. During the summer
months at the Colonial Garden, on a daily basis,
we empty and fill from the well a 200 -gallon
May 29, 1771: " Gardiner Johnny is growing a
Villian again, he pretends to have been watering,
but the earth is crackt where he waters."
This complaint was about the kitchen garden,
but Carter's irrigation attempts for field crops
suffer from the same lack of enthusiasm from his
labor force. Field irrigation generally involved a
system of ditches in which the water flow was
This involves moving one hundred two- gallon
buckets. Each bucket weighs about twenty
controlled by earthen dikes. On June 14, 1774,
Carter wrote, " Again the business of watering
to keep things alive is an evil to those who
don't want to water; for my overseer at the Fork,
pounds, so to fill our cistern one time we have
though it was not more than 10 or 12 hoe fulls
to move 2, 000 pounds of water and bucket.
to stop a run and float his Plant Patch at any
day, has done but very little since I was there
Pretending the time spent in watering."
cistern— largely with the help of children.
Actually, we have to move it twice —first
from the well to the cistern to correct its
rawness" and then from the cistern to the
It is not clear how common the kitchen
garden. So in reality we are moving close to
4, 000 pounds per day. Rather than watering at
night, we water first thing in the morning and
spend the rest of the day recruiting guests to
refill the cistern. This all -day task represents
garden was in the eighteenth- century urban
household, but it is almost certain that the
about the same amount of water that a modern
oscillating sprinkler will deliver in one hour.
had a difficult time maintaining the garden in
a dry year.
In eighteenth- century Virginia, this task was
performed by enslaved gardeners, a resource
mercy of the weather so that garden produce
most residents did not have. John
Custis
could not be depended upon to feed the family
lamented in a 1738 letter to Peter Collinson:
I kept 3 strong Nigros continually filling large
but functioned more to provide the luxuries
that complemented the typical fare of meat and
tubs of water and put them in the sun and
grain. It is also significant that John Randolph, a
ability to move water was a major limiting
factor. We see from the Custis account that
even households with the labor to move water
For most households, the garden was at the
watered plentifully every night, made shades
member of one of the wealthiest, most prestigious
and arbors all over the garden almost; but
families in Virginia, wrote exclusively about
vegetables and herbs in his Treatise on Gardening.
abundance of things perished; notwithstanding
all the care and trouble, so that my garden is
very much impaired."
Hauling water from the well, filling cisterns,
and distributing it with watering cans was an
onerous task. Landon Carter complained on
He did not waste ink on roses or posies; he wrote
about cabbages and cucumbers.
This seems to indicate that vegetables and
fruits had a much higher value than what we
give them today. It also makes one wonder
if Robert Beverley's indictment of Virginia
gardens in the History and Present State of
Virginia ( 1705) that they were not " fit to bear
the name of gardens" was really more about
the difficulty of gardening in Virginia than
disapproval of Virginia gardeners.
We know, through dendrochronology, that
the early years at Jamestown were plagued by
drought, and dry years are a fact of gardening
in Virginia to this day. Even in England, where
rainfall can be better relied upon, Miller wrote in
The Gardeners Dictionary ( 1754): " Water is one
of the most considerable Requisites belonging to
a Garden: if a Garden be without it, it brings a
certain Mortality upon whatsoever is planted."
How much harder it must have been to garden
in the drought prone Virginia colony.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
8
0001 gg GOR
N
R
AP Is
SomeSome FunFun ThingsThings ToTo DoDo
withwith YourYour FoodFood
reciperecipe willwill havehave aa differentdifferent tastetaste andand thickerthicker
consistencyconsistency ifif refrigerated.refrigerated. InIn colonialcolonial times,times,
itit waswas probablyprobably eateneaten atat roomroom temperaturetemperature asas
aa dessert.dessert. ModernModern chocoholicschocoholics wouldwould callcall thisthis
byby JimJim GayGay
aa ganache,ganache, thickenedthickened withwith eggseggs yolks.yolks. It'It' ss greatgreat
eateneaten straight,
straight, asas aa saucesauce overover cheesecake,
cheesecake, oror asas
JimJim isis aa journeymanjourneyman inin historichistoric foodwaysfoodways inin thethe
DepartmentDepartment ofof HistoricHistoric TrodPs.TrodPs.
VisitorsVisitors toto thethe PalacePalace andand RandolphRandolph kitchenskitchens
oftenoften askask thethe historichistoric foodwaysfoodways staffstaff toto choosechoose
theirtheir favoritefavorite periodperiod recipe.recipe. AsAs individuals,individuals,
wewe allall havehave ourour ownown opinionsopinions aboutabout howhow toto
respond.respond. Sometimes,Sometimes, wewe interpretinterpret thethe questionquestion
toto meanmean ourour mostmost challengingchallenging recipe.recipe. AtAt otherother
times,times, wewe talktalk aboutabout thethe reciperecipe thatthat wewe mostmost
something something toto dipdip strawberriesstrawberries into.into. WeWe useuse itit inin
Loaf'Loaf' ss1, SpanishSpanish fashionfashion providedprovided atat thethe endend ofof
1,
thisthis article.
article.
SoSo here'here' ss thethe translation:translation:
44 oz.oz. AmericanAmerican HeritageHeritage Chocolate,Chocolate, gratedgrated intointo
aa powderpowder
11 pintpint heavyheavy creamcream
22 eggegg yolksyolks
sugarsugar toto tastetaste
likelike toto eat.eat. So,So, withwith apologiesapologies toto mymy coworkers,coworkers,
1.1. CombineCombine thethe chocolate chocolate andand creamcream inin aa
whowho probablyprobably havehave theirtheir ownown favorites,favorites, herehere
saucepansaucepan andand slowlyslowly bringbring thethe creamcream upup toto
areare mine.
mine.
aa simmer,simmer, stirringstirring continuouslycontinuously toto meltmelt thethe
EachEach ofof thesethese eighteenth-eighteenth- centurycentury recipesrecipes hashas
anan interpretation interpretation thatthat cancan bebe preparedprepared inin mod-modemem kitchens.kitchens. SinceSince eighteenth-eighteenth- centurycentury reciperecipe
writerswriters assumedassumed theirtheir readerreader waswas aa cook,
cook, somesome-
timestimes thethe obviousobvious ( toto them)
(
them) ingredientingredient oror propro-
cedurecedure waswas excluded.excluded. Consequently,Consequently, wewe havehave toto
readread betweenbetween thethe lines.lines. SoundSound familiar?
familiar? WhereWhere
applicable,applicable, substitutionssubstitutions suchsuch asas canolacanola oiloil forfor
butterbutter areare noted.noted. TheseThese areare funfun toto cook,cook, fromfrom
easiesteasiest toto hardest.hardest. TheyThey areare allall funfun toto eat.eat.
chocolate.chocolate.
WhenWhen thethe chocolatechocolate isis melted,
melted,
tastetaste thethe mixturemixture andand addadd sugarsugar ifif desired.desired.
2.2. TemperTemper thethe eggegg yolksyolks toto preventprevent scrambling.scrambling.
WhiskWhisk thethe eggegg yolksyolks togethertogether untiluntil wellwell
combined.combined. WhiskWhisk intointo thethe eggegg yolksyolks aa
tablespoontablespoon ofof thethe hothot chocolatechocolate mixture.mixture. AddAdd
somesome moremore ofof thethe chocolatechocolate untiluntil youyou havehave
aboutabout aa quarterquarter ofof aa cupcup ThenThen returnreturn itit allall toto
thethe mainmain saucepan saucepan andand bringbring thethe wholewhole toto aa
boilboil forfor aa minuteminute oror two.
two.
3.3. TakeTake saucepansaucepan offoff thethe heatheat andand pourpour chocolatechocolate
intointo youryour servingserving cups.cups.
ChocolateChocolate CreamsCreams
TakeTake aa pt.pt. ofof creamcream wth.wth. aa spoonfulspoonful ofof
chraptchrapt chocolatechocolate boyleboyle tmtm wellwell togethertogether
mixmix wthwth itit thethe yolksyolks ofof 22 eggseggs &
&
thickenthicken
millmill itit onon thethe firefire thnthn pourpour itit intointo yoryor
chocolatechocolate cups.
cups.
ThisThis isis oneone ofof thethe oldest,oldest, ifif notnot thethe oldest,oldest,
handwrittenhandwritten chocolatechocolate reciperecipe inin NorthNorth
America.America. ItIt datesdates toto aboutabout 17001700 andand waswas
writtenwritten byby anan anonymous anonymous housewife housewife believedbelieved
toto bebe aa RandolphRandolph oror someonesomeone closelyclosely associatedassociated
withwith thethe Randolphs.Randolphs. 22 ItIt worksworks wonderfully wonderfully
withwith AmericanAmerican HeritageHeritage ChocolateChocolate soldsold inin ourour
HistoricHistoric AreaArea stores.stores. ThisThis chocolatechocolate isis mademade
byby MarsMars Inc.Inc. andand waswas largelylargely inspiredinspired byby thethe
chocolatechocolate mademade byby historichistoric foodways.foodways. ThisThis
ToTo MakeMake aa CurryCurry ofof Catfish.Catfish. 33
TakeTake thethe whitewhite channelchannel catfish,catfish, cutcut offoff theirtheir
heads,heads, skinsskins andand cleanclean them,them, cutcut themthem inin
piecespieces fourfour inchesinches long,long, putput asas manymany asas willwill
bebe sufficientsufficient forfor aa dishdish intointo aa stewstew partpart withwith
aa quartquart ofof water,water, twotwo onions,onions, andand choppedchopped
parsley;parsley; letlet themthem stewstew gentlygently tilltill thethe waterwater
isis reducedreduced toto halfhalf aa pint,pint, taketake thethe fishfish outout
andand laylay themthem onon aa dish,dish, covercover themthem toto keepkeep
themthem hot,hot, rubrub aa spoonfulspoonful ofof butterbutter intointo oneone
ofof flour,flour, addadd aa largelarge tea-tea- spoonfulspoonful ofof currycurry
powder,powder, thickenthicken thethe gravygravy withwith it,it, andand
pourpour itit overover thethe fish;fish; bebe carefulcareful toto havehave thethe
gravygravy smooth.smooth.
�9
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/ Winter 2008
How easy is this? Stew it, strain it, and
turning them over frequently; beat two
thicken what's left! Now, here is this recipe
translated into modem " food speak ":
eggs very light, add one quarter of a pound
of flour, a tablespoonful of melted butter,
1 lb. of boneless catfish, cut into bite -sized
and as
chunks
handfuls of fresh parsley, rough chopped
or 4 cups of water [ or chicken broth]
or 2 tbsp. of curry powder
tbsp. of butter or canola oil
as will
make a
spoonful of butter to each fritter, fry them
quick, of a light brown, drain them well,
put them in a dish, sprinkling sugar over
each, and glaze them nicely.
This one is a little more work and a lot more
2 tbsp. of flour
salt and pepper
Optional condiments:
diced scallions, diced
carrots, raisins, diced hard -boiled egg, diced
bacon, whole
water
them with the batter, take one slice with a
2 medium onions, chopped
2
3
1
2
much cold
thin batter; drip the apples on a sieve, mix
onion rings,
grated coconut,
chutney
calories. But you have the option of throwing
away the apples and simply drinking the marinade!
2 or 3 Granny Smith apples, cored and pared
4 oz. brandy
4 oz. white wine
k cup granulated sugar ( not confectioner's sugar)
1 tsp. cinnamon
lemon rind from 1 fresh lemon
2 large eggs
1. Sweat the onions and one handful of parsley
in butter or oil. Season with salt and pepper.
2. When the onions are translucent, add the
catfish cut into bite -sized chunks along with
3- 4 cups of water or broth.
3/ cup all- purpose flour for batter
3/ cup all- purpose flour for dry coating
4 oz. of melted unsalted butter or margarine or
canola oil for frying
sugar for dusting
3. Over high heat, bring the liquid to a boil,
1. Mix the brandy, white wine, cinnamon, lemon
then reduce the heat and simmer. Cover
and cook the fish until firm, about 12 - 15
minutes. Remove the fish from the liquid and
put it into a covered dish.
2. Pare and core the apples. Slice them however
you wish: either lengthwise as half moons or
4. Bring the remaining liquid to a boil and
reduce it to one cup.
5. In a small bowl, make a roux by melting the
butter and working in the flour until smooth.
Cook, stirring constantly, until it is a golden
color. Add the curry powder and combine
well. Let cool.
6. Add the curry and butter mixture to the
hot liquid and bring it to a boil. Stir until
thickened.
7. Take the gravy off the heat and add in the
catfish. Cover the pan and let the flavors
combine for a few minutes.
8. Serve over rice.
Although not in the original recipe, other
condiments such as scallions and chutney work
wonderfully with this dish.
Apple Fritters4
Pare some apples and cut them in thin
slices, put them in a bowl, with a glass of
brandy, some white wine, and quarter of
a pound of powdered sugar, a little cinnamon finely powdered and the rind of a
lemon grated: let them stand some time,
peel, and sugar together in a bowl. Set aside.
across to appear like donuts. Either
4
way, make sure the core
and
seeds
are
removed.
Quickly place the apple
slices into the brandy
mixture to prevent them
from oxidizing ( tuming
brown).
Leave them
in the mixture for a
few hours,
In 4/771,,-
tuming
occasionally.
3. Mix the eggs, flour, and a tablespoon of melted
butter. Add cold water to this mixture to make
a thin pancake or crepe batter. Set aside.
4. Drain the apples in a sieve. Lightly pat the
apples dry with a paper towel and then lightly
coat them with flour. Shake off the excess
flour and put them into the batter, coating
both sides. Set aside for about 30 minutes to
let the batter adhere to the apples.
5. Fry the apple slices in melted butter to a light
brown.
6. Drain the fritters on a sieve or cooling rack.
Dust them with granulated sugar and transfer
them to a flat sheet pan. Put the apples under
a broiler set on high for a minute or two to
melt the sugar.
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
10
7. Begin the layers from the bottom up with
To Make an Onion Pies
Wash and pare some potatoes and cut
them in slices, peel some onions, cut them
in slices, pare some apples and slice them,
make a good crust, cover your dish, lay a
quarter of a pound of butter all over, take
a quarter of an ounce of mace beat fine,
a nutmeg grated, a tea- spoonful of beaten
pepper, three tea- spoonfuls of salt; mix all
together, strew some over the butter, lay
a layer of potatoes, a layer of onions, a
layer of apples, and a layer of eggs, and so
potatoes, then eggs,
then apples,
and
then
onions. Sprinkle each layer with a little
of the seasoning and little bits of butter.
Continue filling and seasoning the pie until
you are out of ingredients.
8. Put a top crust on the pie and crimp the
edges. Cut 4 or 5 slashes on top crust to allow
steam to vent out.
9. Bake for 45 - 50 minutes or until the crust is a
nice golden brown.
on till you have filled your pie, strewing a
little of the seasoning between each layer,
and a quarter of a pound of butter in bits,
and six spoonfuls of water; close your pie,
and bake it an hour and a half. A pound
of potatoes, a pound of onions, a pound of
apples, and twelve eggs will do.
This recipe is far and away one of the most
popular recipes in historic foodways. It is a won-
derful accompaniment to roasted pork. Every ingredient works together. The apples and onions
sweeten the potatoes and eggs, and the butter
and seasonings tie everything together. This is
Pain a 1' Espagnole.
a pie, meaning it has a top crust. If your pie -
Loaf Spanish -fasion [ sic] 6
making skills are a little rusty, I suggest you buy
frozen puff pastry available at our local supermarkets. A ten inch pie pan works best.
Cut off the tops of six rolls, take out all the crumbs,
fill them with a ready made [ chocolate] cream, and
cover them with the tops that were cut off, soak
4 small Yukon Gold potatoes
them in sweet Spanish wine, about a quarter of
2 large Granny Smith apples
an hour; then wipe and flour them; fry of a good
2 medium yellow onions
colour, and glaze them with sugar.
8 large eggs
This recipe actually might get you arrested,
3 tbsp. kosher salt
1 tbsp. freshly cracked pepper
1/2 to 1 grated nutmeg
t/z to 1 tsp. mace
because anything this rich and decadent is
probably illegal. I use the chocolate cream listed
above, but you could actually substitute a pre-
4 oz. butter
frozen puff pastry or homemade pie crust
1. Preheat the oven to 375 degrees.
2. Boil the eggs. [ Put the eggs in cold water and
bring them to a boil. Remove them from
the heat and let them stand for 15 minutes.
Then, plunge
the eggs
into
cold water.]
When eggs are cool, shell and slice them.
3. Pare
and slice
the
potatoes, apples, and
onions. Slice everything '%-inch thick. Place
the apples and potatoes in a bowl of water to
prevent oxidation.
4. Roll out the bottom crust and set it into the
pie pan.
5. Mix the salt, pepper, nutmeg, and mace to
together in a single bowl.
6. Drain and dry the apples and potatoes with
a towel.
pared pudding of any flavor. Alternately, it could
work with a fruit filling or even fruit preserves.
The recipe is more safely accomplished by fry-
ing, then filling, rather than soak, fill, and fry.
6 dinner rolls from the Raleigh Bakery,
preferably a few days old
1 750 ml. bottle of white wine, sweetened to
taste
1 Ib. lard, or equivalent amount of clarified
butter or vegetable oil
all- purpose flour for dusting
sugar for glazing
chocolate cream recipe from above or other
sweet filling
1. Make the chocolate cream and set aside. Do
not refrigerate.
2. Carefully remove all of the outer crust from
the dinner rolls with a fine grater. Cut the
�Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2002/ Winter 2008
11
tops from the rolls and dig out the soft white
insides with a paring knife. Take special care
2 Katharine E. Harbury, Colonial Virginia's Cooking
not to puncture or tear the bread shell.
3. When all the rolls are done, soak the shells
and tops in the wine for about 15 minutes.
4. Drain the rolls, then lightly powder them dry
inside and out with flour. ( Do not fry them
soaking wet or you will risk a grease fire.)
5. Deep fry the rolls and tops until golden
brown.
6. Drain the rolls,
then fill them with
1 Anonymous, Unidentified Cookbook ( manuscript),
circa 1700, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.
the
chocolate cream or other filling.
7. Put the tops back on and lightly dust with
sugar.
8. Just before serving, put the rolls under the
broiler for a few minutes to melt the sugar.
Thomas Jefferson said that to really get to
Dynasty ( Columbia: University of Southem Carolina Press,
2004), xiv.
3 Mary Randolph, The Virginia House -Wife ( 1824), ed.
Karen Hess ( Columbia: University of South Carolina Press,
1984), 72.
4 Randolph, Virginia House -Wife, 155.
5 Hannah Glasse, The Art of Cookery Made Plain and
Easy ( Rev. ed., 1796, reps Schenectady, N. Y.: United States
Historical Research Service, 1994), 259.
6 George Dalrymple, The Practice of Modem Cookery
adapted to Families of Distinction as well as to those of The
Middling Ranks ofLife jEdinburgh 1781), 399.
7 James Parton, The Life ofThomas Jefferson, Third President of the United States ( Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and
Company, 1883); 316; digital version 2006: http: //books.
know a people, one had to " look into their
google. com/booksild= HRMNAOVQaSOCScpg= PA316&
kettles" and " eat their bread. "7 If you try some
1pg= PA316 &dq= thomas +jefferson +look +into +their +pots
source =web & ots =Sqb 1 SPLarY &sig= WP8e2MgxZPzDe
of these recipes, you, too, might have some new
insights into Jefferson' s charge.
UPW FbBZsujZug8- PPA316, M 1,
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
12
No sudden revolution in the legal status
of married women occurred either. Wives re-
mained femes coverts in 1830 just as in 1750. But
steady improvements in the ability of wives to
own and control property, especially in the rules
on separate estates ( " premarital agreements" to
us today), indicate that the married women's
property acts in the various states represented
the end of an evolutionary process, not a radical
break from post- Revolutionary trends as historians once thought. ( Linda Rowe, historian,
Historical Research. See also, Marylynn Salmon,
Women and the Law of Property in Early America, Chapel Hill, N.C., 1986.)
Q& A
Question: In the Spring 2007 Interpreter
George Percy' s account of the voyage to
Question: Did the 1776 adoption of the Declaration of Rights and the Constitution for
Jamestown states that " the fleet fell from
the new Commonwealth of Virginia make any
fundamental changes in the rights of women
What were the Downes? ( from Max Hamrick,
London ...
and we anchored in the Downes."
master weaver, Historic Trades)
in the Commonwealth, or did their legal status remain pretty much the same until the
later recodification of Virginia laws? (from Phil
Shultz, actor /interpreter, Public History)
Answer: The Declaration of Rights and the
Answer: What Percy was talking about is an area
of the sea that lies between the Thames Estuary
and the Straits of Dover. It is a protected area off
the east coast of Kent that was a favored hold-
ing position for ships awaiting a fair wind for an
Virginia Constitution adopted in June 1776 did
outward voyage. ( In another context altogether,
not have the effect of changing the legal status
downs also refers to the treeless undulating chalk
of women as such. People often forget that con-
stitutions lay out the form of government, but
they usually do not spell out the nuts and bolts
of the administration of justice, the criminal
code, inheritance, or all the laws and regulations
that apply to daily life and the institutions that
have jurisdiction at various levels.
Phil is correct that the revision of the laws
of Virginia to bring them more into line with
republican ideals was not completed until 1779,
and even then not all of the revised laws were
enacted. ( For example, Bill 82, Jefferson's " bill
for establishing religious freedom," received two
readings but was tabled during the war and not
taken up and passed until 1785, effective 1786.)
Moreover, despite the promise of republican-
ism, American independence had little direct
effect on the legal status of women. Marylynn
Salmon, a historian of women's legal status, has
said that only three changes occurred as a direct
result of independence. After the Revolution,
most of the states broke from English tradition
and allowed absolute divorce ( don't know the
date for Virginia). Reforms in inheritance laws
uplands of the south and southeast of England.)
Question: To what language group did the
Virginia Indians belong?
Answer: The Powhatan Indians belonged to
the Algonquian ( or Algonkian) language group.
The Algonquian languages were ( and some
still are) spoken in Canada, New England, the
Atlantic coastal region southward to North Carolina, and the Great Lakes region and surround-
ing areas westward to the Rocky Mountains.
Among the numerous Algonquian languages are
Cree, Ojibwa, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Micmac,
Arapaho, and Fox Sauk Kickapoo. The term
Algonquin ( often spelled this way to differentiate
it from the family) refers to a dialect of Ojibwa.
Question: Where is the oldest tree in town?
from a volunteer via Julia Eccleston, supervisor,
Guest Service and Orientation)
Answer: The English yew ( Taxus baccata) at the
Custis site on Francis Street is our oldest tree
and possibly the only eighteenth- century plant
benefited women with the abandonment of the
we have. Because it is hollow, we cannot date
English law of primogeniture that had favored
it with certainty. From his own correspondence
the eldest son in cases of intestacy. Reforms in
and from John Bartram's observations on a 1769
inheritance law gave daughters increased rights
Williamsburg visit, however, we know that John
to family property as a result of the republican
Custis grew yews. ( Wesley Greene, garden histo-
emphasis on equality.
rian, Landscape)
�13
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/ Winter 2008
Question: Isn' t there an eighteenth -century
quote about being able to see both the James
and York rivers from a cupola in town? (from
a volunteer via Julia Eccleston, supervisor, Guest
Service and Orientation)
Answer: Former Colonial Williamsburg landscape architect Kent Brinkley wrote in a Fall
2000
Interpreter article: " In
1777,
traveler
Ebenezer Hazard wrote an account stating that
a wonderful view of the entire city could be
seen from the cupola of the main building ( the
Wren) at the College of William and Mary.
He went on to state that the James River was
easily seen from that vantage point, and, on a
dear day, one could view the waters of the York
River ( from Taking Possession resource book,
page 211). In December 1988, curious about this
description, I [ Kent Brinkley] tested the view
of the area from the Wren cupola. I wanted to
do this test specifically at this time of year so
that trees in leaf would not obscure my vision.
Not surprisingly, I ultimately discovered that,
because of the vegetative growth of trees in this
area since 1777, today, one cannot even glimpse
either river from the cupola."
Question: We' re familiar with the story of
how Gov. Francis Nicholson established and
planned the city of Williamsburg. What was
his involvement in the founding of Annapolis,
Maryland, before he came to Virginia? (from
a volunteer via Julia Eccleston, supervisor, Guest
Service and Orientation)
Answer: When Nicholson arrived in Maryland
as governor in 1694, talk of moving the capital
from St. Mary's City had been afoot for more
than a decade, as the center of population
began to shifting away from the region around
St. Mary's. Further, the old capital represented
the center of Catholicism in a colony earmarked
for increasing domination by the Protestant
Church of England after the Glorious Revolu-
The final act passed by the assembly and
endorsed by Nicholson directed commissioners
to survey and lay out in the most comodious
sic] and convenient part and place of the said
Towne six Acres of Land intire for the Erecting
a Court House and other buildings as shall be
thought necessary and convenient" and speci-
fied the dimensions and plan for a building to
house both the assembly and the Anne Arundel
County court.
While the original plan for the city of Annapolis, as the new capital was called in the
spring of 1695, was lost in the 1704 burning of
the state house, circumstantial evidence credits
Nicholson with the design. This evidence includes Annapolis's radical divergence from the
character of other Maryland port cities established before Nicholson's arrival, as well as the
example of Nicholson's behavior in establishing
Williamsburg in 1699. No other person's name
is associated with the Annapolis plan, except
for the frontier surveyor who assisted with the
project and who seems an unlikely person to
have created the formal town plan.
In designing Annapolis, Nicholson used
principles of baroque town planning with which
he, a military man, may have been familiar from
past observation. He made use of two natural
knolls to create two circular spaces balanced by
open squares and intersected by radial streets.
While the inspiration was clearly taken from
European design, the details of Nicholson's plan
would be considered inexact by a professional
town planner of his day. It is unclear whether
Nicholson was doing the best he could with a
site that had already been modified and built
upon earlier or whether he, as a nonprofessional
in the field, simply did not truly understand
the principles requisite for a " perfect" design.
source: John Reps, Tidewater Towns)
Question: Interpreters like to point out that
the Wythe House is one of our most original
tion of 1688 - 1689 and the ascendancy of William and Mary.
Newly arrived Govemor Nicholson called his
buildings. How can we know how " original"
first meeting of the Maryland assembly in Sep-
Christina Smith, site interpreter, Geddy House)
tember 1694 to discuss a new location for the
seat of government. An act passed in October
to establish " the Chief place and Seat of Justice
within the Province for holding of Assemblyes
and Provincial) Courts" at the virtually defunct
site of Arundelton, toward the northern edge
of settlement and no more centrally located
than St. Mary's, angered Maryland's Catholics
as well as Protestant residents of St. Mary's ( remember that Catholics were always a minority
in Maryland).
historic buildings are? Is there a ranking
somewhere of the most original sites? ( from
Answer: It would be difficult if not impossible
to rate our buildings in the Historic Area ac-
cording to degrees of originality. I understand
the origins of the question in the romantic desire to stand in an untouched space, but in fact,
it diverts attention from more important ways of
looking at our buildings.
First of all is the metaphysical question:
What is an original building? You may recall
that Colonial Williamsburg used to tout the
�14
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
fact that we had eighty-eight original buildings
visit in order to see the kind of woodwork typi-
in the Historic Area. This was done to divert
cal of the better residences of the city. Thus, an
individual building can vary widely in terms of
criticism from the unfounded notion that we
reconstructed all our buildings.
significance.
Let's look at that list of eighty -eight buildings. It's worth noting that, in fact, there were
touched by later generations of homeowners
more than that number when we first started.
or restorers. Nowhere are there original roof
We unfortunately dismantled a few such as Taze-
coverings —
all the clapboards or wood shingles
well Hall. You can also add one or two buildings
such as the Saunders House on Ireland Street,
with new ones when they wore out or were tom
which is a mid -eighteenth- century brick house
that was left off the list as it stands forlornly
outside of the Historic Area.
None of our original buildings survives un-
were either replaced in the nineteenth century
off and replaced by concrete asbestos shingles in
the early days of the restoration.
The same goes for plastered walls. One of the
The buildings on the official list ranged
first things Colonial Williamsburg did when it
from those that had a lot of early fabric, such as
restored a building in the early days was to re-
the Everard House ( framing, brick foundations,
move all the plaster to see what was underneath
woodwork), to others that had very little and
were taken down and reconstructed using a few
as well as to investigate the structural quality of
of the old timbers, such as the Moody House.
Is the Moody House original? What percentage of fabric do we need to make the 1749
Coffeehouse fragments found in the Armistead
House and its brick foundations near the Capitol an original structure? It is impossible to judge
it in this fashion.
the framing.
So, throughout the Historic Area, we are
missing important pieces of information. Original
plaster
could
tell
us
about
color
washes
on the walls or whether wallpaper had been
installed. Some elements have survived well;
others have disappeared leaving little trace.
have been altered little in the past 250 years.
For readers of the Interpreter, I would suggest starting off by reading Marcus Whiffen's
Eighteenth -Century Houses of Williamsburg. Al-
The plan now is very similar to what it was
though it is now out of date and due for revision,
The Wythe House certainly would appear to
in the 1750s; yet additions had been made to
the house - doorways punched in, porches, and
other changes.
There are thousands of bricks in situ from the
it still provides a fairly accurate review of the
conditions of each of the important early houses
in town. Usually, the last paragraph of each in-
day they were laid by Wythe's bricklayers; how-
dividual write - p describes the condition of the
u
building at the time of its restoration by Colonial
ever, most of the woodwork and chimneypieces
Williamsburg as well as what elements had to be
in the house are modem ( twentieth- century
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation restoration
replaced or renewed with modem materials.
work). Even the brickwork has been patched
in a number of places ( such as around the front
has started the revision process based on what
door) where it had been changed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The wood
of research. Unfortunately, most of this material
cornice on the exterior appears to be nineteenth
about a half dozen buildings posted in a section
century but similar to the one that was prob-
called " Articles" on the Architectural Research
Department's page on the CWF Research Divi-
ably on the building during Wythe's time. Thus
for brickwork, the Wythe House is fairly well
intact and does give a good sense of the quality
The Department of Architectural Research
we have learned over the past twenty -ive years
f
is still in draft form. You can see the drafts for
sion website. We plan to get all of the major
buildings online as we have the opportunity.
of brickwork attainable in
Carl Lounsbury, architec-
the
tural historian, Architec-
capital
in
the mid -
tural Research)
eighteenth century.
In terms of interior finishes, the Wythe House is
a good reconstruction, but
it would not be the house
I would invite people to
Q & A was compiled by Bob
Doares, training specialist in
the Department of Interpretive Training.
I
�15
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/ Winter 2008
Archaeology at Jamestown: A Century - ong Pursuit
L
by Kelly Govain
Kelly is a training specialist in the Department of Interpretive Training and was an archaeological intern in
the summer field school on Jamestown Island in 2001.
Archaeology and Jamestown are two
words often heard together, not
I
only for the pas
e
decade or
eca e
ON.
was George Percy's accounts that state,
y 00TH
S
7v ,"
our shippes doe lie so neere the
shoare that they are moored
century. Archaeologists
from practically every
to the Trees in six fathom
water." Because that depth
4, was so far out into the
generation have taken
river, it was only logical
a stab at finding the
for Yonge to assume that
remains of the 1607 fort.
the fort lay out there
Although many found
as well. Yonge must be
artifacts and other bits
credited with finding the
so, but for more than a . ticy
foundations of the third
and pieces of evidence of
the
seventeenth- century
site, each had come to the
conclusion that the majority
of the fort had been washed away
and
Jamestown
fourth
statehouses
as well as determining that
what Little remained of the fort
VIRGINIA 1607 -2007
into the James River. It wasn't until
1996, after two years of excavation, that the
lay somewhere between the church
tower and the Confederate earthworks.
Several years later, in 1934, following the
Jamestown Rediscovery team found convincing
National
evidence to the contrary.
remaining land on Jamestown Island, another
Park Service's acquisition of the
remained of the original seventeenth- century
effort at excavation began. This time archaeologists and architects both were brought together
settlement was the 1639 church tower, which
to examine the site. Unfortunately, the differ-
Throughout the nineteenth century, all that
lay in ruins. In 1893, the newly formed Associa-
ing objectives of each expertise hindered the
tion for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities
progress of their efforts, and the possibility of
acquired the ruins and twenty -two and a half
acres surrounding it. Four years later, founding member of the APVA Mary Jeffrey Galt
finding the fort was lost. Following this disas-
took it upon herself to begin excavations sur-
Having been trained in both architecture
and historical archaeology, thus eliminating
the potential for conflict among collaborating
rounding the church tower. Her amateur work
began a century- long pursuit of archaeological
work to find what remained of the Jamestown
settlement.
trous attempt at collaboration, J. C. Harrington
stepped into the picture.
groups, Harrington was the perfect man for the
job. His work began in 1937 and continued
In the early years of the twentieth century, in
until 1949. During that time, he excavated
preparation for the tercentenary commemorabegan excavations while building a seawall de-
the Jamestown Glasshouse and kept detailed
drawings and records of his findings throughout
the site. Despite Harrington's meticulous work,
signed to halt erosion to the island. Yonge had
there was still not enough convincing evidence
done extensive research on the site and mapped
to be the rate of erosion that had occurred in
that the original fort remained.
As the 350th anniversary in 1957 inched
closer, yet another effort was made. John Cotter
recent years and the concentration of artifacts
became supervisor of archaeology at the NPS
surrounding the church tower, Yonge determined that the majority of the fort had washed
side of the island and excavated areas referred to
away into the James River. According to a scale
map he drew following his findings, only the
Joel Shiner, worked on the APVA side of the
tion in 1907, engineer Col. Samuel H. Yonge
out his findings. Based on what he considered
easternmost bulwark closest to the church remained on the island.
as the Elay -Swann site. Another archaeologist,
property.
Based on his finds of early Native American
artifacts and late- seventeenth- and eighteenth -
We can't fault him too much for his inaccurate
century artifacts, Cotter determined that the
assumptions, because he was using what primary
original fort was unlikely to be found on the
documents were available to him. One in particular
eastern side of the island. Although Shiner un-
�16
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
covered an early seventeenth- century armorer's
Kelso began excavations south of the church,
forge and layers of colonial artifacts within the
Confederate earthworks to indicate the possible
closest to the seawall. In 1996, the team found
vicinity of the fort, his small -scale excavations
produced nothing conclusive.
The layers within the earthworks were put
what they sought: the bulwark and part the
southernmost palisade line. The angle made by
that bulwark, led them to believe that another
bulwark likely remained somewhere near the
on display for visitors during the anniversary
celebration indicating the highest level A as
Confederate earthworks.
Civil War zone, level B as colonial trash, and
level C as prehistoric Native American artifacts. This exhibit caught the eye of William
Jamestown Rediscovery team has determined
that only the westernmost bulwark has been lost
to the James River; they are working to uncover
as much of the rest of the fort as they can Visitors to the 400th anniversary commemorations
and Mary graduate student Bill Kelso, who
decades later became head of the Jamestown
Rediscovery project.
As yet another anniversary year loomed on
After thirteen years of excavations, the
were able to experience much more than those
the horizon, historians and archaeologists re-
during previous anniversary events.
The Archaearium, a new archaeology mu-
mained convinced the majority of the fort lay in
seum erected over the old statehouse site, dis-
the middle of the James River. Hoping to have at
plays many of the artifacts found. Visitors can
least a small display of seventeenth -century arti-
also now see reconstructed palisade lines and
facts from the original fort, the APVA, in 1994,
the frame of a building that sat along the south em palisade wall. It only took a little more than
a century to bring the history of Jamestown to
created the Jamestown Rediscovery project to
uncover whatever portion might be left.
Based on the archaeological work conducted
over the last century, they knew part of the fort
life. It makes you wonder, what new discoveries
will the 450th anniversary bring to light?
remained and determined this was the time to
begin a large -scale investigation with a group of
Bibliography:
well- trained professionals. Kelso, with extensive
Noel Hume, Ivor. The Virginia Adventure:
experience in excavating other seventeenth-
century James River settlements, was appointed
head archaeologist. He was hopeful that more
of the fort remained on the island, and set his
primary goal as finding the remaining bulwark
and palisade line.
Following a recommendation by his mentor and fellow archaeologist Ivor Noel Hume,
Roanoke to
James Towne, An Archaeological and Historical Odyssey
1994).
Kelso, William M. APVA Jamestown Rediscovery 1 - 111
1995 - 1997).
National Park Service. Chronology of Jamestown Archeology
1999)
Packer, Nancy Elizabeth. White Gloves 69 Red Bricks:
APVA, 1889 - 1989 ( 1989).
�17
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/ Winter 2008
Abraham of Barbados
Discovery of what Barbadian vessels might
have entered Virginia in mid- to late June 1776
by Pete Wrike
provides an interesting corollary to, if not confir-
Pete is an interpreter in the Department of School
entry and clearance records exist for this time
in Virginia, by either British or emerging Com-
mation of, Abraham's story. No systematic vessel
and Group Services.
Julejgh Clark of Colonial Williamsburg's
John D. Rockefeller Library drew my attention
to an interesting advertisement from a July 1776
monwealth of Virginia authorities. There may
have been others, but only one Barbadian vessel
is known to have entered Virginia's waters in the
period under investigation. On Sunday, June 23,
a Barbadian vessel, the William and Charles, sailed
Virginia Gazette:
TAKEN up at Layton's warehouse, in
Essex county, about the latter end of last
month, and now in my possession at that
past Cape Henry into the Chesapeake Bay.2
place, a negro man who cannot or will not
tell his master's name, but denies having any
in this country; says, as well as he can be
understood, that his name is ABRAHAM;
that he was sent here in a ship with many
others from Barbados, by his master
there, to fight for lord Dunmore; and that
he ran away from the ship, within a few
days after he carne to him. He appears
to be between 30 and 40 years of age, of
the middle size, slim made, speaks very
broken, his face marked in the manner the
grown negroes from Guinea usually are,
had on a country made cotton cloth coat,
rusty tomahawk. His owner is desired to
apply, pay charges, and take him away.
The William and Charles is known only because she ran hard aground on Willoughby's
Point ( current -day Willoughby Spit) about midnight, Sunday, June 23, 1776. In response, the
Virginia militia under Maj. Andrew Leitch
JAMES BOWDRIE. 1
gathered twelve men, including Virginia Navy
linen short breeches, a kind of coarse [ ta
willed linen shirt, and had with him a very
There are two ways to interpret the informa-
Lt. Thomas Herbert, and commandeered an
tion in this ad: Abraham was from Barbados and
an escapee from Dunmore's forces, or he was a
unarmed pilot boat. They boarded the stranded
brig after dawn, assured themselves that the
Virginia slave with a plausible story to cover his
tracks. Largely circumstantial evidence and a
few documented events have a bearing on this
episode, but we may never know which interpre-
cargo was destined for Dunmore, and arrested
the crew. Leitch found 311 puncheons of rum
and a few barrels of limes on board. He ordered
tation is correct.
James Bowdrie's appeal for Abraham's owner
Herbert to lighten the brig, in order to free it
from Willoughby's Point, and sent four of the
brig's crew ashore under guard.
to " apply, pay charges, and take him away" tells
Meanwhile, the British tender Fincastle, of ten
us that Bowdrie himself is reasonably certain
carriage guns, spotted the activity and bore down
that someone in Virginia will claim the run-
swiftly to investigate. Lt. John Wright, R.N.,
away. According to Bowdrie, Abraham refuses
quickly and correctly assessed the plight of
to speak his master's name, and his speech
bly deliberate obfuscation on Abraham's part.
the William and Charles and opened fire on the
pilot boat, which fled under the fire from the
Fincastle. Meanwhile, on board the stranded
Nonetheless, Abraham and Bowdrie understand
each other well enough to for Bowdrie to give a
brig, Lieutenant Herbert threw five puncheons
overboard, hoping to free the brig and drift to
fairly detailed account of Abraham's story in his
shore. He got the remaining patriot militiamen
Gazette runaway notice. That Abraham " speaks
very broken" and carries marks " in the manner
off in the brig's longboat, with the exception
of one man who lingered too long in the hold.
Late Monday, June 24, the William and Charles
is difficult for Bowdrie to understand, possi-
of] the grown negroes from Guinea" suggests
his African origins but neither confirms his
enslavement in Barbados nor rules him out as a
Virginia slave.
anchored off Gwynn's Island?
The William and Charles belonged to a
Barbadian named Walsh, and the crew was
�The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
18
understandably elated when the Fincastle drove
up" if Abraham traveled by land. In fact, the
the patriots off, re- floated the brig, and hoisted
description of Abraham's capture — "taken up at
British colors. The sight of the Fincastle and the
William and Charles under British colors bolstered
Layton's warehouse " —strongly implies seizure
on the river.
morale at Gwynn's Island. Once the brig's cargo
Then as now, a peninsula above Layton's
became known, morale rose even further. The
constricted the river and increased the current's
cargo of rum would quite adequately serve the
speed. On an ebb tide it was difficult for sailing
needs of the fleet and Dunmore' s floating town.
vessels and small craft to move upriver making
With the island's water diminished in quantity
it a likely spot for a runaway on the water to
and quality, the arrival of a supply of rum was
be spotted and taken. ( See Layton's warehouse,
Gwynn's Island, and the adjacent region shown
timely.4 Presumably, if there were slaves on
board the William and Charles intended for
on
Dunmore's forces, they, too, would have been a
The author placed an inset map to amplify
the difficulties of navigating above Layton's
welcome sight.
the
accompanying
contemporary
map.
Is there a chance that Abraham was aboard
the William and Charles? Again, circumstan-
warehouse.) Whether by land or water, a " few"
tial evidence allows for that possibility. That
Tuesday evening, June 25, 1776, patriot mi-
County might total four to seven days. That
litia Major Leitch reported the incident off
Willoughby's Point to Col. James Hendricks,
Island in the third or fourth week in June,
possibly on board the William and Charles or
commander of American forces in Hampton
some other Barbadian vessel.
Roads. Hendricks promptly notified Brig. Gen.
Andrew Lewis in Williamsburg, along with his
the runaway advertisement has been found.
caustic observations on the Barbadian crew and
The few extant records on James Bowdrie
days with Lord Dunmore plus travel to Essex
figure works if Abraham arrived at Gwynn's
No further reference to Abraham beyond
their decided Tory sympathies, 5 likely
shared by Abraham's supposed master
Walsh in Barbados. Hendricks also
spoke about " the whole of the people
on board" the William and Charles,
suggesting a considerable number of
persons in addition to the crew. These
might have included Abraham and
other slaves sent from the island to
help fill Dunmore's Royal Ethiopian
Regiment alongside escaped Virginia
slaves who had joined Dunmore after
he published his Emancipation Proclamation in November 1775.
If Abraham's story that he was
sent to Dunmore from Barbados was
true, he must have made the decision
By his Excellency the Right Honourable JOAN Ear! of DUNMORE, bit
114aj:ffy' r Lieutenant and Gooersoar- General of the Colony and Demiaioa of
Virginia, and Vier-4dmiral of the fame:
A
P- R
O
C. L
A
M
A. T
I
O
N.
AS I have ever entertained Hopes that an Accommodation might bras
taken Place between Grear Britain and this Colony, withoot being
compelled, by my Duty, to this molt difagreable, but now abaluteiy.
necelfary Step, rendered fo byeBodyofarmed Men, unlawfully alfenabled,
firing on his Majelty's Tenders, and the Formation ofan Aimy, and that
Army now an their Match to attack his Majelty's Troops, and defk'opthe
welldifpofcd Sabjedts of rids Colony: To defeat fetch treafonablePnrpofes,-and that all fuch Traitors. and their Abetter, may be brought to Inflict;
and that the Peace and good Order of this Colony may be again mitered,'.
which the ordinary Caurfe of the civil Law is unable to aftR, I have
thonght fit to Mite this my Proclamation, hereby declaring, that until the
stored(' good Parpofes an be obtained, I do, in Virtue of the Power and
to make a bid for his freedom almost
Authority to me given, by his Majefty, determineto execute martial Lnw,
and auk the fame to be = scatted throughout this Colony; and to the
End that Peace and good Order may the loaner be reftdred, I do 'require
every Perfon capable of bearing, Arms to rcrort to his Majefy's 5 T A N-
as soon as the William and Charles
anchored off Gwynn's Island on June
fuch Offences, fixeh as Forfeiture of Life, Confifation of Lands, drr. era.
24, 1776. In this scenario, his lack of
knowledge about Virginia waterways
and byways very likely contributed
to his capture at Leyton's Warehouse.
Moreover, as a runaway, in these
DARD, or be looked upon ,s Traitors to his Malatya Crown and Govern -
ntent, and thereby became liable to the Penalty the Law initials upon
And I do hereby farther declare all indented Servants, Negroes, or others
appertaining to Rebels) free, that are able and willing to bear Arms,
they joining his Majetty's Troops, as Coon as may be, for the more fpecdity
reducing this Colony to a proper Senfe of their Duty,. to his Majdtys
Crown and Dignity. I do farther order, and require, all his Majetty's
liege Subjedts to retain their Quit enr, or any other Taxes due, or that
may become doe, In their own Cuftody, till fach Time as Peace may be
times, Abraham was subject to arrest
again mitered m this at prcfrne matt unhappy Country, or demanded of
them for their former Binary Pmpores, by Officers properly authorifedto
by either side.
Abraham's seizure is the only
G I pE N ander my Hand, as Beard the Sbip W,lin, of Norfolk:
l
one documented at the end of June
1776 in Essex. Layton's warehouse
receive the Gme,
the ytb Day of Naveruber, ix the x6tb rear of his Majefl i.
Reign.
was several miles north of the main
b
U
N
EI
O
road ( now State Route 17— George
Washington Highway) and on the
river, an unlikely place to be " taken
G
O
D
LW/
SUL $
I N
G.
R
E.
�19
Vol. 28, No. 3, Fall 2007/Winter 2008
Layton' s warehouse
Leedstown
Drakes Marsh
Coleman Creek
i/ s warehouse
Iayton'
the " great road "ar+.
Rappahannock
River
at .,
Gwynn's
Island
Map showing Layton's Warehouse to the mouth of the Rappahannock River and water and land routes to Gwynn's
Island. Enlarged section shows the two miles overland from the warehouse to the " great road."
provided no clues to Abraham' s fate after
his initial capture at Leyton's, so perhaps his
Charles. The cargo of 311 puncheons ( 1 puncheon equals
84 gallons) indicates a brig of approximately 90 tons.
Virginia owner turned up to claim him from
Bowdrie after all. This possibility leaves us to
wonder about the source of the story Abraham
3 Ibid., 62 - 63. It was usual in Colonial Office records
ofshipping and other contemporary maritime documents to
communicated to Bowdrie.
and additional "crew" that were slaves shipped from Barbados. Abraham claimed that his Barbadian owner sent him
exclude the numbers of slaves that commonly augmented
crews. Probably the William and Char/es had few white crew
to Virginia, not the island's governor unless the governor
1 Virginia Gazette (Purdie), July 26, 1776 supplement, P.
2, col 1.
2 Peter Jennings Wrike, The Governors' Island, Gwynn's
Island Virginia During the American Revolution (The Gwynn's
Island Museum and Brandylane Publishers, 1993), 62. The
was his master. The four crew taken ashore were certainly
white. Slaves among the crew would have remained on
board to assist the patriot militiamen. This was common
practice.
4 Ibid., 63. Also Virginia Gazette, June 28, 1776.
William and Charles does not appear in shipping records,
5 Ibid. From " Extract of a Letter from Colonel Hen-
nor do Barbados vessel entry and clearance records for the
dricks to Brigadier General Lewis, dated Hampton, June
period 1765 to 1800 exist. Records in nearby islands and
26, 1776," Naval Documents of the American Revolution,
the Virginia Naval Office lists do not reveal records of a
vol. 5 ( Washington, D.C., 1966), 755 - 756. The author
William and Charles. The newspaper Barbadian Mercury has
few extant copies for this period. Lloyds lists for 1764, 1769,
has documented more than five hundred slaves who served
1776, 1777, 1778, and onward do not list a William and
the king during Lord Dunmore's campaign against Virginia
June 1775 —
July 1776).
�20
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
New Items in Special Collections
The Book of Common Prayer ( London: Mark
Baskett, 1766) bound with The Holy_ Bible
London: Mark Baskett, 1768).
This work
of the Treaty of Paris. The biblical text is taken
from Psalms 126: 3, " The Lord hath done great
things for us, whereof we are glad."
belonged to the Greenhow family, colonial
residents of Williamsburg. The research value
Photo Album compiled by Frederick H. Ball,
of the piece stems from some twenty pages of
circa 1910 - 1911. Frederick H. Ball and his
written
material.
wife, Merrill Proctor Ball, lived in the Peyton
Dates covered stretch from John Greenhow
Randolph House in the early twentieth
1724 - 1788) through the early nineteenth
century. Ball served as general manager of
the Piedmont & Tide Water Land Company.
addenda
and
genealogical
century.
This album consists of fifty black-and -white
Appraisement and inventory of the Williamsburg property of the late Doctor William Pasteur, July 26, 1791. Pasteur was a one -time
mayor of the city and partner in the Pasteur Galt Apothecary Shop on Duke of Gloucester
photos of buildings, landscapes, and people in
various areas of Virginia. Photos of buildings
in Williamsburg include Person's Garage, the
J. R. Daly House, the C &O Railroad Depot,
Street. The document lists sixteen Negroes
Ball's business, the Old Debtor's Prison, the
Marshall House, Bassett Hall, Bruton Parish
by name.
Church, Nicholson School, the Wren Building,
and
Ferroussat
de
Castelbon.
Reflexions
'
sur
the
Peyton Randolph
House. Notable
la
events that are recorded in the photographs
mauvaise Qualite du Platre ( Paris: chez Lottin,
1776). This rare work in French discusses the
include a large group of African Americans
poor quality of plastering in the era, traces its
use from Roman times, and suggests methods to
assembled for a boat launching at Queen's
Creek and a Washington's Birthday celebration
arrive at better fabrication.
at Nicholson School. The album also includes a
photograph of Rosewell Plantation before it was
Rodgers, John. The Divine Goodness Displayed,
in the Visual Resources Collection. Please contact
in the American Revolution ( New York: Samuel
Marianne Martin, visual resources librarian, if you
Loudon, 1784).
wish to see the album.]
damaged by fire in 1916. [ The album is housed
This pamphlet contains a
sermon preached in New York on December 11,
1783, the date appointed by the Continental
Congress as a day of public thanksgiving
Submitted by George Yetter, associate curator for
throughout the United States for the signing
John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library.
the architectural drawings and research collections,
�Publication of
this issue of the Interpreter
was made possible
by a gift from
James H. and Sherry P. Hubbard
of Severna Park, Maryland
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter is published
ee
times a year by the Historic Area Division:
Editor:"
Nancy Milton
Copy Editors:
Mary Ann F Williamson
Beth Lawrence
Assistant Editor: Linda Rowe
Editorial Board:
Emma L. Powers
Planning Board: Laura Arnold,' Harvey Bakari,
Bertie Byrd, Bob Doares,
Jan Gilliam, Wesley Greene,
Andrea Squires, John Turner,
Ron Warren, Pete Wrike
Production:
The Marketing Creative
Services Department
Diana Freedman
2007 The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. All rights reserved.
All images are the property of
The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, unless otherwise noted.
�p*A COLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG ADVENTURE
tEVOLUTIONAR
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter, volume 28, number 3, Fall 2007/Winter 2008
Description
An account of the resource
Dohicky Arundel: A Documentary History -- The Bothy’s Mould: "A Very Needful Work": The Gardener's Calendar, 1787 -- Cook’s Corner: Some Fun Things To Do with Your Food -- Questions and Answers -- Archaeology at Jamestown: A Century-Long Pursuit -- Abraham of Barbados -- New at the Rock: New Items in Special Collections