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Text
Questions
Vol.
10,
Answers
1
NO.
February
February is Black History month.
This
issue
of
1989
Questions
Answers replies to questions about schools for slaves
These answers come from Thad Tate' s The
Williamsburg.
in
Negro in Eighteenth- Century Williamsburg.
1.
Were there schools for slaves in Williamsburg?
There
is some evidence of
interest in education for
Negroes in Williamsburg as early as the 1740s.
December
22,
On
1743,
Commissary Dawson wrote to England
asking for a copy of school rules " which, with some
little alteration, will suit a Negro school in our
Metropolis,
One
when we shall have the Pleasure of seeing
established."
1750,
than
later,
in
he wrote the Bishop of London about Negro
There are three such schools in my parish,
schools, "
these
Then only a few years
I
sometimes
occasional
visit."
Whether
catechism
classes
these
or more
were
no
more
regular
instruction is a complete mystery.
It hardly seems
likely that they could have had a very long history
without
2.
attracting
wider notice.
What was the group known as Dr.
Dr.
Bray' s Associates?
Bray' s Associates were English philanthropists
from the larger groups called the Society for the
Propagation of
the Gospel.
This group expended a part
of its missionary effort " amongst the Poorer sort of
people,
as
also among
the
Blacks and Native
Indians."
In the 1760s Dr. Bray' s Associates decided that
Williamsburg was worth a try as the location of one of
its schools for blacks.
3.
Who were the trustees of the Williamsburg school?
Benjamin Franklin, who in January 1760 took his place
as
a
newly
elected
member
of
the Associates,
recommended William Hunter ( Williamsburg postmaster
and printer
of
the Virginia
Gazette)
and
Thomas Dawson
president of William and Mary and rector of Bruton
Parish) as trustees for the Williamsburg school.
were
approved.
school,
Hunter and Dawson had
to
find a teacher and a place for it to meet,
supervise its day -to -day operation.
Dawson died just as
undertook
most
of
the
the
the establishment of
Since
school opened,
responsibilities
the
Both
organize the
and
Thomas
Hunter
connected with
school.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
N°
�4.
When did the Bray School open?
The Williamsburg school began to operate on Michaelmas
September
5.
How
large
children
At
the
29),
was
1760.
the
enrollment?
At what age
did
attend?
request
Nicholas,
of
the Associates,
Robert
Carter
Treasurer of the Colony of Virginia,
raised
the enrollment from twenty -four to thirty, and it
remained
close
to
or
a
little
above
that
figure
Most pupils
the duration of the school.
eight years old, a few as young as three,
two
6.
as
old
as
nine
and
were
six
to
and one or
ten.
How many teachers did the school employ?
Hunter
engaged
as
a
teacher
Mrs.
Ann
Wager,
be the only instructor the school ever had.
death the
7.
for
school
closed
What were the course of
employed
In
1763
at
the
in
who
was
to
Upon her
1774.
study and methods of
teaching
school?
Nicholas
and
Hunter' s
successor
William Yates
drew up rules for the guidance of the schoolmistress.
Mrs. Wager was to take only scholars approved by the
trustees,
open
winter and
six
the
in
school at seven o' clock in the
the summer,
enforce regular
and keep her pupils " diligently to their
A number of
Business during the Hours of Schooling."
the
rules governed religious instruction and worship:
attendance,
students were
to learn to read
the Bible,
the
instructor was to catechize them according to the
doctrines of the Church of England, and the teacher
was to take the children to church regularly as well
The teacher was
as conduct prayers in the school.
also expected to insist upon personal cleanliness,
neatness of dress,
and moral behavior from the
Finally, she was to " teach her Scholars the
true Spelling of Names, make them mind their Stops
possibly punctuation] and endeavour to bring them to
While the heaviest
pronounce and read distinctly."
students.
emphasis was on religion, it is still clear that the
intention was to provide a reasonable amount of formal
academic training for the youngsters.
�8.
Where was
the Bray
From 1763
to
1765
School
located?
the Associates
engaged
a house
owned
by Dudley Digges ( possibly located on the northeast
It proved too
corner of Henry and Ireland streets).
and
small,
in
the
latter part
of
to a house owned by John Blair,
until
9.
it
closed
in
What kinds
of
attend
1765
the
school
1774.
school?
the
masters
allowed
their
slave
children to
The thirty or so Williamsburg
slaveowners who
enrolled
represented
section
Robert
slaves
of
in
the
political
Carter
school
leaders
like
John
Nicholas,
and
John
shopkeepers,
craftsmen,
and
Hugh Orr,
a
Randolph
and
Alexander Craig,
and Jane
The college also enrolled two of its
in 1769.
Three of the children in 1762 and
were
of
like
Vobe.
1769
cross
Blair,
innkeepers
Anthony Hay,
10.
moved
where it remained
slaves
two in
free.
How successful was
the Williamsburg
school?
In Virginia educational opportunities for slaves were
all but nonexistent.
Dr. Bray' s Associates' school in
Williamsburg stands out as a notable establishment for
the
colonial
school
least
was
a
period.
not
quite
moderate
Although
fifteen
success.
the
years,
Classes
entire
life
of
the
it was at the very
operated
at
capacity even in the face of too brief an attendance
from most of the scholars.
Masters were willing to
have some of their young slaves educated at the school
What
perhaps mostly because it was a cheap nursery).
may be most
significant of
all
is the
indisputable
fact that some of the scholars were learning to read
and
write,
Nicholas
adequate
nothing
slaves'
even under relatively adverse conditions.
described those children who remained for an
time
as
able "
to read
pretty well."
If
these young scholars had proved the
capacity for education.
else,
�Questions
This
is
a
December
reprint
of
Answers
the popular " rumor"
issue
from
Because many of these myths still have not
1982.
been dismissed ( dismythed ?),
we
thought
you
would
appreciate reading it again.
1.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT .
People were shorter in the eighteenth century.
The
short
antique beds
prove
it.
People were not significantly shorter in the
eighteenth
Records
century.
indicate
that
soldiers
white males)
during the Revolution averaged only . 63
S.
Army recruits in 1957 and
The antique beds are actually about six feet
inches
shorter than U.
1958.
long,
the
same
as
modern
standard -size
beds.
For
example, a random sample of beds in our exhibition
buildings shows that none is shorter than 74" (
6' 2 "),
most are several inches longer than that, and some are
as long as
80 1/ 2 ".
high ceilings
2.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
and
They appear shorter because of
tall
bedsteads.
THAT . . .
For sanitary reasons,
a bit of
the
stem was
broken off pipes before they were reused.
Archaeologists find many pipestem fragments because
pipes are easily broken.
smokers broke off
mouthpiece.
the
end
Furthermore,
There is no evidence that
of the stem to make a clean
eighteenth- century people
weren' t aware of germs anyway.
3.
RUMOR
HAS
IT THAT . . .
Williamsburg has so many one and one -half
houses because there was a tax on two -story houses.
There were no taxes on buildings during the colonial
period,
so
this
does
not
explain
the prevalence
story- and -a - half houses in Williamsburg.
These
of
simply
follow the pattern of the vast majority of houses in
colonial
Virginia.
They are single -story houses with
finished attics for additional living space.
4.
RUMOR
HAS
IT THAT .
Glazed headers tell us that a building dates from
the early eighteenth century because after 1750 there
Hardwoods were
was a law against burning hardwoods.
required to make a fire hot enough to glaze brick.
There was no colonial Virginia law against burning
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�hardwoods.
5.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
Mirrors came
larger pieces
in two pieces because a tax was placed on
of
glass.
The old story about a tax on large pieces of glass appears
be completely without foundation.
Harold
Gill
has
to
determined
that no such law existed in Virginia.
In England every
attempt was made to encourage manufacturing in the eighteenth
Also,
century, not to hamper it.
if one compares very large,
two -piece looking glasses with smaller examples of the same
form, the larger mirror will often have a single unit
containing more
surfaces of the
6.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
surface area than
smaller ones.
that
of
the
combined
THAT . . .
A French traveler remarked that
in bad weather,
Duke of
Gloucester street was a mile long and a mile deep.
In Jane Carson' s We Were There, Descriptions of Williamsburg,
1699 - 1859,
none of the travelers described Duke of Gloucester
Street ( or the main street) as a mile long and a mile deep.
Several of them wrote of the unpaved main street that it was
deep with sand and aggravating in summer because of the dust,
sand,
and heat;
one described
the main street as "
sloppy"
during a rainy period.
7.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT .
Thomas Jefferson jogged up and down Duke of Gloucester
Street.
Jefferson clearly believed that exercise was beneficial
health.
In letters
recommended
others
on
of
it highly. "
he told
exercise,"
that
character
running
recommended
Walking is the best possible
Carr. "
Games
played with
the
ball
and
nature,
on
were "
to
to his wife and to Peter Carr he
the
too
that
are too violent for the body and stamp
mind."
Whether he felt that " jogging" or
violent,"
Carr walk
we don' t know.
Jefferson
in the afternoons and said that
half an hour' s walk in the morning was also beneficial.
One
might well have seen Jefferson walking for exercise in
Williamsburg when he was a student here and later in his
various governmental capacities.
But " jogging up and down the
Duke " -- probably
8.
RUMOR HAS
not.
IT THAT . . .
Thomas Jefferson wrote that Palace
with
catalpa
green was
On his drawing of the Palace ( circa 1779),
noted
planted
trees.
the " rows
of
trees
100f.
apart"
on
Thomas
Palace
Jefferson
Street.
He
did not mention the type of tree.
These were doubtless the
trees that General de Lauberdiere mentioned in his journal
July 1782),
in which he noted the " very fine palace, built at
�the extremity of a handsome
Lauberdiere' s
were
9.
is
the
first
street planted with catalpas."
statement
we
have
that
the
De
trees
catalpas.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
Pigs were free to roam the streets of Williamsburg.
By law pigs were penned
to prevent their escaping
from the
small farms into the streets of Williamsburg.
10.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
Town criers announced
the news
to Williamsburg residents.
1772,
Purdie and Dixon' s Virginia Gazette for July 16,
reported that the Williamsburg Court of Common Hall had
enacted a by -law
for constituting a WATCH,
to
consist
of
four
sober
and
discreet People, who are to patrol the Streets of the
from ten o' Clock every Night till Daylight the next
City
Morning, to cry the Hours, and use their best Endeavours
to preserve Peace and good Order, by apprehending and
bringing to Justice all disorderly People, Slaves, as well
as
others.
The watchmen were essentially policemen and firemen and only
incidentally " criers"
of
the
hours.
associated with early New England,
11.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
The
term " town
not colonial
crier"
is
Virginia.
THAT . . .
George Washington refused to marry Martha until she let
her
hair grow longer.
There
is
no evidence
Martha Custis
that George Washington " refused"
for any reason,
and meaningless
reason as
the
let
alone
length of
for
such
her hair.
a
to marry
frivolous
From
what
we know of Washington such an action would have been totally
out oft/
character.
12.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . .
Cobblestones were used
Williamsburg.
There
is
no
evidence
to
line
the streets of
that cobblestones
lined
the
streets of
Williamsburg.
13.
RUMOR
HAS
H"
heaven
IT
THAT . . .
panels in doors had a religious significance,
and
meaning
hell.
Architectural historian Mark
R.
Wenger has
found no
eighteenth- century source indicating religious significance in
paneled doors -- neither " H"
and
Bible."
for heaven and hell
nor the " cross
The configuration of door joinery was determined
by traditional methods of assembling paneled elements:
�A.
A.
1
I
rails) .
rails) .
B.
B.
to
n
PanelsPanels areare enclosedenclosed byby aa frameframe
composedcomposed ofof verticalvertical members members
stiles)
stiles)
andand horizontalhorizontal membersmembers
OnOn thethe outerouter edgesedges ofof aa paneled paneled
elementelement (
(
entireentire
whetherwhether
wall)
wall)
aa doordoor oror anan
thethe outerouter stilesstiles
runrun
allall thethe wayway through.
through.
1
C.
C.
1
WithinWithin thesethese outerouter stiles,
stiles,
areare
D.
D.
railsrails
continuous.
continuous.
InnerInner stilesstiles areare thereforetherefore brokenbroken
byby thethe rails.
rails.
AA sixsix - panelpanel doordoor isis aa goodgood example example ofof this.
this.
ItIt isis best,
best,
notnot toto attributeattribute doordoor panelpanel configurationsconfigurations toto religiousreligious
then,
then,
symbolism.
symbolism.
14.
14.
RUMORRUMOR HASHAS
ITIT THATTHAT . . .
...
AA buttonbutton inin thethe newelnewel postpost indicatedindicated thatthat thethe househouse waswas
paidpaid
for.
for.
AsAs inin thethe precedingpreceding case,case, thethe traditiontradition concerningconcerning anan ivoryivory
buttonbutton inin thethe newelnewel postpost appearsappears toto havehave nono basisbasis inin
historicalhistorical documents.documents.
toto
bebe
true.
true.
confirmation,
confirmation,
However,
However,
OccasionallyOccasionally suchsuch traditionstraditions areare proven"
proven"
inin thethe absenceabsence ofof thisthis sortsort ofof
wewe shouldshould avoidavoid makingmaking traditionaltraditional explanationsexplanations
partpart ofof ourour interpretation.
interpretation.
Let'Let' ss trytry toto stickstick withwith whatwhat wewe
cancan demonstrate demonstrate oror atat leastleast inferinfer fromfrom historicalhistorical documents.documents.
15.
15.
RUMORRUMOR HASHAS
ITIT THATTHAT .
.
AA manman couldcould legallylegally beatbeat hishis wifewife withwith aa stickstick ifif itit waswas
notnot biggerbigger thanthan hishis thumb.thumb.
NoNo lawlaw toto thisthis effecteffect existedexisted inin colonialcolonial Virginia.
Virginia.
CompletelyCompletely false.
false.
16.
16.
RUMORRUMOR HASHAS
ankles.
ankles.
ITIT THATTHAT . . .
...
AA womanwoman couldcould bebe putput inin thethe pillorypillory forfor showingshowing herher
ThereThere isis nono evidenceevidence whatsoeverwhatsoever forfor this.
this.
ManyMany illustrationsillustrations
datingdating fromfrom thethe colonialcolonial periodperiod showshow workingworking womenwomen wearingwearing
theirtheir hemshems atat ankleankle lengthlength oror above.above.
17.
17.
RUMORRUMOR
HASHAS
TheThe "
"
ITIT THATTHAT .
.
refusalrefusal
room"
room"
atat Carter'Carter' ss
GroveGrove
isis
soso calledcalled becausebecause
itit waswas therethere thatthat MaryMary CaryCary refusedrefused GeorgeGeorge Washington'Washington' ss
proposalproposal ofof marriage,
marriage, asas diddid RebeccaRebecca BurwellBurwell whenwhen ThomasThomas
JeffersonJefferson proposed proposed marriage.
marriage.
GeorgeGeorge WashingtonWashington waswas nevernever enamoredenamored ofof MaryMary Cary.Cary.
Rather,
Rather,
�his
of
infatuation was with her sister Sally Cary Fairfax,
George
continued
for
seven
or
eight
Although
years.
friend
and
neighbor.
Washington
she
to have been genuinely in love with Sally,
his
wife
It began in the early 1750s and
William Fairfax.
seems
was married
to
Though they sometimes corresponded,
circumstances precluded any proposal of marriage in the socalled "
refusal
room"
at
Carter' s
Grove
Washingtons and Fairfaxes remained
or
anywhere
friends
The
else.
for many years.
Jefferson had a schoolboy infatuation for Rebecca Burwell of
Fairfield,
Although he
Gloucester County.
contemplated marrying Rebecca,
the " refusal
room"
or
seems
to
have
he never actually proposed in
He
elsewhere.
indicated
at one
time
that a proposal might be in the offing, but that he would ask
her
to
wait
In
traveled abroad.
Somehow this
Jacquelin Ambler.
for marriage
meantime
Rebecca
married
youthful
romance
has
until
he
had
overshadowed Jefferson' s
marriage to
which Dumas
Martha Wayles Skelton on New Year' s Day 1772,
Malone
18.
RUMOR
says " ushered in
HAS
IT
the
the happiest period of
his life."
THAT .
There was a law in Williamsburg that stated sheets in the
taverns had to be changed once every two months.
The law required eighteenth- century tavern keepers to furnish
good, wholesome, and cleanly lodging and diet for
travellers,"
but
there was no
specific
reference
sheets.
Conditions varied in taverns as
motels.
Clean
than
rule
the
sheets
if
seem
to have been
travelers'
accounts
the
are
to changing
in today' s hotels
exception
One
accurate.
and
rather
person
even went so far as to carry his own sheets with him.
inventories of
However,
list
more
sheets
available
19.
the better taverns
than beds,
at
those
RUMOR
IT
most
of
in Williamsburg
linen was
the
probably
THAT . .
HAS
taverns
so clean
time.
People did not bathe or change their clothes very often in
the eighteenth century.
People rarely record such personal and routine information
about themselves,
so there is no way to answer such questions
There
adequately:
Virginians
is
no
did not bathe
reason
to
and change
think
that most
clothes
colonial
regularly.
William Byrd II in his History of the Dividing Line indicates
on occasion that he was
relieved to be
several
the
days'
newspaper
travel
ads,
laundries,
and
soaps,
in
other
able to bathe
sources
refer
to
outbuildings
and laundering equipment.
The
textiles tells us that methods of " dry cleaning"
silks and other fancy fabrics.
20.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
used
curator
was
used while
the
were used on
in each garden in Williamsburg
other was
as
of
THAT . . .
There are two necessaries
because one
after
Inventories,
wilderness.
cleaned.
Many Williamsburg house lots had only one necessary
�house and some had none.
Even at Westover plantation the
evidence is conclusive that there was only one necessary
house.
21.
No
RUMOR HAS
evidence points
to
a"
spare"
house.
IT THAT .
Women were not allowed to come in the front door of an
eighteenth- century
tavern.
First of all, women were not usually tavern customers,
although there were instances of them sleeping there of
necessity when traveling, or dining at taverns with family or
friends, or attending balls at taverns.
Furthermore, there is
no evidence that when an eighteenth- century woman entered a
tavern she had to use a back or side door.
It is likely that
most women would not have wanted to be in a boisterous
barroom.
The custom of a separate ladies' entrance or waiting
room appears to be a nineteenth -century one.
Today some
English pubs still have a public bar and a quieter lounge bar.
Quite recently women customers have begun frequenting public
bars as well as lounge bars, where women felt more welcome in
the
22.
past.
RUMOR
HAS
IT
THAT . . .
The pineapple became a symbol of hospitality because it
resembles
the
pinecone,
a symbol of hospitality to the Greeks.
The research staff checked several reference books on symbols
and found nothing about the Greeks'
symbol of hospitality.
using the pinecone as a
To them it was a fertility symbol.
The traditional explanation for the pineapple' s use as a
symbol of hospitality is that during the seventeenth and
eighteenth
centuries when
the
fruit was
so
exotic
and rare,
it
was a mark of the host' s special esteem for his guest to serve
pineapple.
23.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . .
Publick Times was when the burgesses were in session.
To the colonists Publick Times meant only that the General
Court or Court of Oyer and Terminer was in session.
Publick
Times were in April and October ( when the General Court met)
and again in June and December ( sessions of Oyer and
Terminer).
The Meeting of Merchants usually coincided with
court dates.
sometimes
The General Assembly met for long periods- -
months
at
a
time.
Thus,
the
House of
Burgesses were
sometimes in session during Publick Times.
24.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . . .
Kitchens were separate from houses because this
arrangement was thought to reduce the danger of fire to the
main
house.
In 1705 Robert Beverley wrote, "
All
Drudgeries of Cookery,
Daries,
Washing,
Their [ Virginians']
etc.
are perform' d
in
�a
offices detacht from the Dwelling Houses,
are kept
more cool
which by this means
and Sweet."
Current scholarship on
detached kitchens in the Chesapeake area emphasizes their role
in the segregation of different social groups.
Reducing the
risk of fire was not a reason for separating kitchens from the
main houses.
A balanced explanation of separate kitchens should mention a
concern for fire, but the emphasis should be on a social
factors.
The wisdom of this approach is apparent when we
consider that dozens of seventeenth -century frame houses
survive in New England where cooking was done in the house.
In Virginia,
where kitchens were separate,
not one
seventeenth -century frame house is known to exist.
25.
RUMOR HAS
IT THAT . .
Portrait painters in the eighteenth century had canvases
already made up with figures
their clients'
and torsos and just painted
in
heads.
The " headless body myth"
The formula -like poses
artists engendered
seems to have begun in the 1930s.
and prodigious output of
the theory that
certain
itinerant portrait painters
spent their winters preparing a supply of canvases with
painted bodies and backgrounds.
The myth has been
applied
to
both eighteenth- and nineteenth -century painters without much
evidence
to
support
it.
It probably would be erroneous to state that the technique was
never employed by artists working in eighteenth- century
America since we can only judge by the incomplete evidence
The evidence we do have consists of
available to us today.
the surviving paintings and the slim recorded documentation on
artists'
methods during those years, as in the cases of
Jeremiah Theus in Charleston from about 1740 to 1774, and
Charles Willson Peale whose early career in the mid -Atlantic
colonies
is well known.
No mention of
such a practice
is
made
in any references to these two painters or their work,
although we do learn
that
several
sittings
were required for completing a likeness.
with the
subject
Furthermore,
no
large -scale ( meaning oil on canvas and near life size)
headless likenesses by eighteenth- century portraitists in
America
have been discovered.
Finally,
scholars have not been able to detect any physical
evidence in existing paintings that bodies were painted well
in advance of
the heads.
Such physical
evidence might
include
overlapping paint layers along the neck and chin areas as well
as
along
the circumference of
the head where it joins
the
background.
On a slightly different but related subject, new research
indicates that American portrait painters often showed exactly
the same clothing,
paintings.
objects,
and
poses
used
in
English
This does not mean that American painters only
�9
filled in the faces of their subjects - -they painted
the whole
figure and entire background but sometimes borrowed designs
from other artists.
�Questions
Vol.
10,
June
3
No.
Answers
1989
This issue of Questions and Answers explains in some
detail a number of new programs our visitor' s can expect
to
see
this
summer.
Military Encampment
to
The
Brickyard
mK
K
ro
0
5
Tailoring
Children' s
m-
Programs
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�MILITARY
The
at
the
more
themes
Magazine,
and
topics
Guardhouse,
effectively by moving
military
for
encampment (
For
several
ENCAMPMENT
identified for
and
Magazine
the
interpretation
can
yard
be
the outdoor activities
the nine
the
years,
busiest
desire
months
to
presented
to a separate
of
the
interpret
year).
the
role
of
the Magazine as a military warehouse and the desire to interpret
military life and focus on the Revolution has caused tension in
the
interpretation.
life,
have
etc.
Important
been
aspects
demonstrated
and
of
weapons,
interpreted
tactics,
in
the
camp
Magazine
yard because these subjects were not being addressed anywhere
else.
Unfortunately, many of these activities never took place
at the Magazine in the period.
We have successfully presented
the subjects,
but in so doing, we have created a scene that never
existed.
During the years
1775
town
itself.
Historic
aid
of
Developing
Area
some
would
Fife
interpretation
Others
the Magazine
broader
issues
inaccuracies
without
of
the
will
be
support
House
on
Nicholson
marquee
Flanking
company
will
details
and
through
an
the
expand
there
the
location.
etc.
removed
would
focus
on
site.
the
Of
encampment
those
to
be
Street.
sites
A
the
is
open,
At
as
the
the
two
troops. (
layout
of
The camp will be
on
of
the
lot
best
behind
fifteen
or
the
accessibility,
the head of
officers'
be
examined,
visitor
wooded
total
size camp.
for
entrance
to
appropriate
cooking fires,
level ground,
seems
serve
tents
the
need to explain away the historic
When
the street will
twelve " A"
were
in
closed.
space,
facilities
believable
a
of
continue
more
interpretation
present
Encampment:
combination
to
in a
tents,
the
the
Guardhouse:
Guardhouse
life
fencing,
area,
troops
quartered
size) camp within the
staff,
with the seasonal
Magazine
members,
military
With the
from
the
Drum
were
small ( company
allow
and
of
a
numerous
to 1781,
camped in the Williamsburg area.
tents
the
will
See attached
site.)
make
a
the company street,
headquarters
tent.
wall
tents
sketch
for
lieutenants'
and
Tayloe
and
additional
fenced and access will be controlled
Nicholson
Street.
Key topics for interpreters introducing visitors to the
site
will
be:
During the Revolutionary War,
around Williamsburg because,
military center of
Virginia.
troops camped in and
as
the
capital,
it
was
the
�Troops
camped here
for
a
number of reasons:
recruiting
equipping and training
and assembling new units;.
recruits;
gathering units for specific campaigns; and
supplying the troops to guard the public buildings.
Ongoing interpretive activities and demonstrations will
casting musket balls, making
cleaning,
cooking,
include:
musket
washing clothes,
cartridges,
field
music,
itself,
drum repair,
posting
cannon firing,
specific topics
a
times events
parade
of
will
uniforms,
first person
revelry,
etc.
from the Magazine,
Hands - on"
include:
in depth
cannon,
activities
will
include:
uniforms
arms,
in the spring,
was
cannon
is
or
will
of
furnished
include:
different
The
units,
Magazine
tent
practice
will
operate
drill
and
dry firing
bell
interiors,
targets.
seven days
a
week
summer and fall and five days a week in the winter
The encampment will be open 10: 00
Monday through Saturday ( firing of muskets and
scheduled
to 4: 00 p. m.
and
helping to build
arms,
Logistics:
as
musket
gabions),
Exhibits
of
equipment,
interpretive
making wooden fortifications (
drum playing, tomahawk throwing,
trying on uniforms, etc.
of
and
to the role of camp
tours,
wagons bringing in
the camps,
manual
gear
ranging from tactics
followers,
supplies
of
etc.
sentries,
Special or
maintenance
building and maintaining the camp
in
1989.
prohibited on
Sundays)
from
mid -March
until
a. m.
December.
The Guardhouse will be open only when the encampment is closed
for
the
season.
�THE BRICKYARD
Brickmaking will begin the first week in June.
The
work will reflect everything learned about molding bricks over
the past eighteen years.
Research has led to some conclusions
regarding the process used by the colonial Virginia brickmaker,
the ways in which the trade was organized, how it functioned in
the colonial economy, and the people involved in brickmaking.
Every document and reference still available relating
to brickmaking in Virginia from 1600 through the nineteenth
century, focusing specifically on Williamsburg in the colonial
period,
was
carefully
examined,
and an exhaustive study of
several English accounts was undertaken.
The
most
complete
accounts came from a French encyclopedia published in 1761.
forty folio size pages of text were translated. This French
Over
source also yielded several paints showing all aspects of work.
As a result of this research Historic Trades had to
rethink some of the commonly held ideas about brickmaking.
One popular notion says that the clay used to make
bricks came from the excavations of cellars and footings at
building sites, and
proposed building.
that bricks were always made on site for a
While this may have been true in some cases,
it can' t be used as a statement of common practice.
Where
the
clay is concerned, not just any claylike subsoil will make good
bricks.
Knowledgeable brickmakers sought clay of a particular
consistency
the loamy,
and
quartz
lime,
and
and texture.
All
subsoil,
the material found beneath
organic topsoil layer, is composed of clay particles
( sand),
with small amounts of minerals such as iron,
magnesium.
Good brick clay is approximately two to
three parts clay particle to sand.
The brickmaker relied on his
training and experience to judge the qualities of a potential
brick clay.
Firing,
or " burning,"
the bricks is another critical
part of the operation that requires skill and care.
Church
vestry records usually stipulate that only " well burnt" bricks be
used in the construction of a proposed church building. This
brings up a burned.
controversial point on terminology related to how the
bricks were
The
terms " clamp"
and " kiln" may have been used
interchangeably in general usage from the Middle Ages through the
mid - nineteenth century.
potatoes,
or
bricks.
A clamp can be a pile of anything - -hay,
In brickmaking specifically, a clamp is a
volume of unfired bricks stacked for the purpose of firing,
and
the entire mass is disassembled when the firing is completed. A
kiln is a permanent or semi - permanent shell of burned bricks that
is periodically filled with unfired bricks for the purpose of
firing them.
By the late seventeenth century, people writing
about the brickmaking trade clearly indicate that clamps and
�kilns worked in distinctly different ways.
general
description and
similarly constructed,
one
were
but
Kilns
fired with wood.
without
the
fit
the
Clamps
above
were
thick burned brick shell
layer of burned bricks would sometimes be used to cover the
The significant difference was that, during
crushed coal was layered around and between the
Tunnels at the base were
unfired bricks as they were stacked.
filled with a combination of wood and coal, the wood being used
to ignite the coal.
Once the coal was ignited, a clamp burned on
its own until the fuel was spent.
A kiln had to be fueled and
outside
of
a
clamp).
construction,
Documentation
tended constantly during the course of the burn.
indicates that kilns produced higher percentages of " well- burnt,"
or good quality brick,
but
clamps did not
require
the
intense
labor and management in firing.
The term " clamp"
never appears in any of the colonial
Virginia documents that we have examined. "
Kiln" or " Kill" is
always
used.
The records seem to indicate that bricks in
Virginia
were
wood
fired,
after the manner of English country
kilns.
As
with
other
trades
in
Virginia,
the
skills
were
first
imported and then passed on.
As early as 1610, " brickmakers,"
along with bricklayers, lime burners, and other tradesmen, were
being recruited to come to Virginia.
The
distinction made
between brickmaker and bricklayer signifies
recognized as different skills and separate
that the
trades.
two were
Some skilled brickmakers were evidently itinerant,
moving
from place
bricks.
On
the
to place,
other
hand,
contracting
brickyards
with
would
whomever
operate
required
for
of years in one place, supplying bricks for a particular
Humphrey Harwood,
Williamsburg builder and bricklayer,
maintained brickyards that supplied bricks for different
numbers from two to three hundred to upward of 30, 000.
a period
locale.
jobs
in
The skill and labor for making bricks was provided by
slaves and indentured servants.
The following entry from
Harwood' s ledger indicates the skills embodied in one of his
a
slaves,
ranges
man
named
Sam.
The quality of bricks made in the colonial period
from the excellent examples found in the Wythe and Palmer
Houses to the very poor bricks
and
the
Powell
smokehouse.
in the east wall of
Our
goal
is
to produce
Prentis Store
hard,
durable
bricks that can be used to repair and restore Williamsburg' s
historic buildings
and
for
reconstruction
projects.
The
bricks
that we make this summer may be used to rebuild the fireplaces in
the
Courthouse.
In the course of producing bricks that are "
tempered
and
well
burned,"
we
visitors a dynamic picture of
existed.
want
well
to show Williamsburg' s
the trade as it traditionally
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�TAILORING
It has long been a dream of Colonial Williamsburg to be
able to exhibit the tailoring trade.
The authors of Teaching
History at Colonial Williamsburg advocated the inclusion of this
craft in the future development of the Historic Area.
Our
research
at
present
has
identified
70
tailors
and
one
tailoress
who resided at one time in Williamsburg during the eighteenth
There
century. (
are over
700
tailors
identified
in
colonial_
Virginia.)
The next closest trade to tailors in numbers was
carpenters / joiners,
of whom we have identified 50 individual
craftsmen in Williamsburg.
By exhibiting this craft we have an
opportunity to show the tailor as a merchant, local
competitor,
and
employer.
user of English imported goods,
excellent
Technical processes such as the skills involved in measuring,
cutting,
garment
and
constructing a
three -dimensional
a
from
can
flat
pattern
be
and
demonstrated.
fashionable
Interpreting
tailoring would complement the Millinery and Wig Shops in
discussing the changing fashions of eighteenth- century Virginia.
In
fact,
the
fashion,
clothing,
and
textiles
trades
represented
35. 5 percent of all trades in eighteenth- century Williamsburg.
The next closest
group of
represented
percent
16. 5
trades
of
the
were metal
workers,
who
total.
We will open the Boot Shop as an operating Tailor Shop
three days a week ( Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday) throughout
Those three days were selected because on
the spring and summer.
Wednesday the Millinery Shop is closed and Friday and Saturday
are
upon
the
busiest
days
visitation
of
visitation
patterns
over
the
in
the
past
Historic
few
Area
based
years.
The Millinery
Shop will continue a six day operation and the textile area will
maintain a five -day operation.
During the summer we will either
propose continuing the tailoring program throughout the rest of
1989 or be able to reopen the Boot Shop.
Goals
and
Objectives:
The
interpret
overall
the
work,
goal
lives,
for
this
site
will
and environment
of
be:
to accurately
tailoring as
represented in eighteenth- century Williamsburg and to establish
and preserve the
technology,
The
objectives
interpretive
to interpret
and
processes,
will
and
skills
of
the
trade.
be:
the role of
the
tailor in Williamsburg
Virginia
to interpret
the technology,
organization,
to identify
interpret
processes,
and working environment of
skills,
tailoring
those individuals who were tailors and
their
lives
�to compare and contrast Williamsburg tailors with
English
tailors
to link the interpretation to the knowledge and
interest of the visitors
Throughout the experimental period the tailors will
make
a number of different
coat,
child' s
frock,
banyan.
waistcoat,
waistcoat,
and
items,
breeches,
breeches,
including breeches,
and
coat,
suit
waistcoat,
consisting
riding habit waistcoat,
of
a
and
The list of clothing represents the period 1750 - 1790 and
the articles will be exact reproductions of existing pieces in
our collection.
Additional research needs to be done on men' s
pre -1750 fashions before we can make exact reproductions from
that period of the eighteenth century.
�CHILDREN' S
PROGRAMS
Once Upon a Town
Children ages
Costumed interpreters and local
4 - 6.
children in costume will lead young visitors on a walking tour of
the Palace green neighborhood and explore the lives puppets,
of young
Games,
people in eighteenth- century Williamsburg.
visiting the livestock, and other participatory activities will
The program varies daily.
occur.
Tickets are sold at the Courthouse in the Historic Area.
Limited
to
14
children per program.
Younq Apprentice Tour
Children ages
interpreter,
Led by a costumed historical
10 - 12.
tour participants focus on young American at work
and play as they walk through an eighteenth- century community.
Actively participating in activities of trade and domestic
crafts,
today' s young visitors learn about their eighteenth Who was
century
counterparts.
educated
at home?
White and
girls?
Who became
an
apprentice?
How, did opportunities differ for boys versus How was
black?
Special "
hands - on"
leisure
time
spent?
and active inquiry activities vary
daily and encourage participants to interact with the restored
eighteenth- century community that was the heart of Britain' s
largest
continental
colony.
Tickets are sold at the Courthouse in the Historic Area.
Limited to 20 children per tour.
Stepping into the Past:
Families at work and play in colonial
Virginia
Twentieth -century families will " step back in time"
investigate family life in this colonial community.
The
to
roles
of
and children of varying ages will be examined through
women,
activities that re- create the work patterns and leisure -time
men,
activities
of
a
different
era.
This participatory program will
encourage parents and children to learn together about family
life in colonial Virginia.
Tickets are sold at the Courthouse in the Historic Area.
Activities are designed
Limited to 16 people per tour. (
for the
participation of children over seven years old.)
All programs begin and end at the flag on Market Visitor'green near
Spare s
Check the "
the
Courthouse,
Companion"
weather permitting.
for times and ticket information.
�Family Tours at the Capitol
Designed primarily for families with children 6 - 12
years
of
age.
This 35 minute tour of the Capitol provides a
thought - provoking participatory exploration of the basic
processes of 18th -century government.
For more information see the Visitor' s Companion.
Young Curator' s Tours at the DeWitt Wallace Decorative Arts
Gallery
This hour -long tour for children ages 7 - 11 explores the
Gallery to find new ways of looking at objects.
The tour
emphasizes interactive and participatory techniques to involve
the "
young
curators"
in exciting discovery experiences.
The tour is limited to ten children per tour,
may be made by calling extension 2936.
the Visitor' s Companion.
and
For more
reservations
information see
Special summer tours offered June 19 through August 20,
1989
Young Colonials Club Childrens Program
Beginning Monday,
summer,
June 13th and continuing through the
there will be two children' s activity programs
exclusively for the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation hotel guest
children ages
5 - 10 years of
age.
The programs will run from 12: 00 p. m. -
3: 00 p. m.
and
from 5: 00 p. m. 8: 00 p. m daily.
The afternoon program is held
in the historic area, and the evening program is held on the
Motor House
grounds.
10. 00 per child,
Each program includes a meal.
The cost is
per program and will be charged to the guests
room.
this
Please make a special effort to inform the guest about
program.
�Questions
10,
Vol.
No.
Answers
4
August
This
issue
of
Questions
and
Answers
cleaned
format
from
in the eighteenth century?
of
Questions
original
correct
the
and
Answers
responds
how were
many inquiries we have received about,
Instead of
we
have
the usual
excerpted
Soaft
spelling.
Senior
Interpreter.
Soap
16
lb
potash
25
potash it must bear an
on the fat
2
receipts
thus we have made no attempt to
For additional reading we have
sources,
Trades
to the
clothes
included a bibliography suggested by Su Carter,
Historic
1989
pails
lb
egg
fat
hot
water
to dissolve
to
dissolve
the fat
the
then pour it
the lye and let it boil for soap 5 lb potash makes
lye
hard soap of
Snow
1 lb hard soap Sliced melt it slow over the fire
then take 8 lb frech snow stiring it often till it rises a
strum
then
1
wants . 3 hours boiling,
it
hard
soap
1
wine
Glassfull
I
Salt
had
in
but
it
it,
3
for
will
give
6
for
one
soap
best
add
when you boil
hot
in
when
the
soap,
trow it
stired
botom
in
the
of
in
well
a
next
tub
a
your soap take out 2 pails of
tub,
till
to
stirr
Dissolve' d
civer
day cut
in
it
the
a
Sup plate
Salt
then
trow
a
bottom
then
trow
the
while
little
water
your
out
stains
1 pail water with a little weak Lye 1 table spoon
will boil any stains out Linen or Cotton very
turpentine in,
good for corse
when put in
things
to
git
clean you
must
wet
them
first
dip your ink stain' s in clean Candle Grease Melted
and let it dry on- the linen till washing
stains
on
it
then
disapears
rub it with fine rosin and hogs lard then rub soap
pour hot lye on it 2 or 3 times till the Stains
then wash it
in Clean soap suds
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
�2
A ball to take out stains from linnen
Take foure ounces of white hard Soape,
mortar with two small Lemmons sliced, and as
an hasell nut,
roll it up in a ball, rub the
beate
much
it
roche
staine
in
a
allome
as
therewith,
and after fetch it out with warme water if neede be.
Iron mould out of Linen and Grease out of
Woolen &
Silk
4 Oz of Spirits of turpentine of the essence of Lemon
mixt
well
together put
in a
bottle for use
To remove Iron Molds from Cotton or Linen.
Take an earthen vessel, pour into it boiling water,
then spread the stained parts of your cloth over it, let it
remain
until
well
penetrated
with
the
steam,
then
rub
on
the
places sorrel juice mixed with salt until it is well soaked.
Such cloths washed afterwards in common lye, will be made free
from
spots
of
.
mold.
To remove Carriage Wheel Grease from Woollen Cloth
rubbed
To effect this,
with fresh butter,
the
then
spots
of
grease
must
lay on two or three
blotting paper and apply a hot flat iron to it;
entirely
take
out
the
be
first
strips of
this
will
spots.
To Extract Grease or Stains from Mourning
Take a good handfull of fig leaves,
quarts of water till
a
bottle
for
use.
boil
them on two
put it
the quantity is reduced to a pint,
in
This liquor will take any stains or spots of
grease out
of Ladies mourning dresses, such as bombasines,
crapes,
cloths,
etc.
It is only necessary to rub the soiled part
with a sponge dipped in the liquor.
To Take
Mildew out
Wet
water,
of
Linen
the linen which contains the mildew with soft
rub it well with white soap, then scrape some fine chalk
to powder and rub it well into the linen, lay it out on the grass
in the sunshine,
watching to keep it damp with soft water. Repeat
the process the next day, and in a few hours the mildew will
entirely disappear.
To Take Off Spots of Any Sort,
From Any Kind of Cloth
Take half a pound of crude honey,
laid
egg,
and
the bulk of
a nut of
the
yolk
of
a
new
aromatic salt, then mix all
well together,
then put some on the spots; having left it there
awhile,
then wash it off with clean water, and the spot will
�3
immediately disappear. This receipt is of great importance to
servants that have the care of their master' s wardrobe,
many
other
similar
and
To Remove Ink Stains From Cloth, Plaid, Silk or Worsted, &
Take one pint of rain or other soft water,
it half an ounce of oxalic, citric, or tartaric acid;
and
shake
it
well;
to
use
it,
c
dissolve in
the
ounce will be sufficient to mix the pint strong enough,
very close
in
cases.
half
cork it
lay the part affected
over a bowl of hot water, but not to touch the water, and let the
steam evaporate
sponge into it,
disappears,
hurt
the
through,
then shake up the solution and dip a
and rub well the part affected until the stain
hen hangit out in the sun,
finest
fabric.
Dolcey' s Mode of Doing up Muslin,
Muslin,
Cambk,
and
and this solution will not
Silk,
common
Camb[ ric] k,
clothes (
Stuff
except
flannel)- -
wash in two waters as hot as you can bear it with hard soap,
strong suds then boil in blue water until white - -if very yellow
they must be rubbed with hard soap when put into the Kettle.
the
water must be just warm in the kettle when the clothes are put
in.
and
Then well boiled.
dry them- - for thin
When white
enough
take
them out,
muslin use very thick starch,
for
wring
thick
muslin and cambk very thin -- squeeze out the starch, wring them in
old linen or diaper, then dry them again the cambk must be
sprinkled before it is ironed.
the muslin must only be clapped
until perfectly clear, then placed smooth with the hands and
ironed when dry,
muslin should always be boiled in a brown linen
bag not too thick - brown rolls is the best.
dresses never boiled
with anything but muslin articles.
silk,
stuff,
colored clothes
and flannel must be washed twice in mild warm suds then wrung out
clear,
rolled
smooth.
silk and stuff ironed on the wrong side
before they are dry- - this
sprinkled
and
ironed
as
gives
a
cambks.
gloss.
flannel
colored
clothes
smooth' d with
after shaking them a little then hung out to dry.
up
as
other
silks.
like blue water.
stiffen' d with gum
the wrong
done
white are ting' d with pink by drop cake made
Black crape is washed in clear water then
arabic,
colored winter vests
on
the hands
silk hose
side.
clapped and very lightly ironed.
in milk warm suds, twice, ironed when damp,
Old Dolls Method of Washing Color' d Dresses
Wash them in two lathers of milk warm water,
rinse
them in fair water milk warm then have ready their starch enough
to wet the whole dress.
3 table spoonsful of starch to half a
handful of salt, make
dress through it, and
thick,
it
and
hang it out
prevents the colour from running.
thin
it
afterwards.
to dry -- starching
with
run
salt
the
�4
To Wash Flannels
wash
them
In washing flannels - make a lather of milk warm water
in
this,
and in two more lathers of milk warm water
then wring out the suds and hang out to dry.
or
fair water,
never
rinse
in
cold
it makes the flannel shrink.
To wash silk stockings
Take weak Lye such as is used for washing clothes,
wash the stockings in it cold very clean with soap, then soak
them
well,
put them in clean lye and boil them '
blue comes out.
till
all
the
old
then chop up some soap and put it into a pint of
Lye,
put it on the fire and let it boil till the soap is melted,
then take it off and add to it 2 large spoonfulls of liquid blue,
strain it and it, in the stockings while it is scalding hot rub
put
them well in
then take them out and rub them again well with
the hands,
then let them hang in the shade '
then mangle
them.
NB.
a pint of
till about half dry
Lye with 2 spoonfulls of Blue
will do about 4 or 5 pair of stockings.
To restore Whiteness to scorched Linen
Ingredients - 1/ 2
earth,
2
large
1
oz.
onions.
Mode- -
consistency
damaged
pint of vinegar,
of dried fowls'
of
dung,
1/ 2
oz.
2
of
oz.
of
soap,
fuller' s -
the
juice
of
Boil all these ingredients together to teh
spread the composition thickly over the
paste;
part,
and if the threads be not actulaly consumed, after
it has been allowed to dry on, and the place has subsequently
been washed once or twice,
disappear.
every trace of
scorching will
Preservatives against the Ravages of Moths
Place pieces of camphor, cedar - wood, Russia leather,
bog - myrtle, or anything else strongly aromatic,
tobacco - leaves,
in the drawers or boxes where furs or other things to be
preserved from moths are kept,
To Make
and
they will
never
take harm.
Starch
Peel and grate a quantity of potatoes, put the pulp
into a coarse cloth, between two boards, and press it into a dry
cake;
the juice thus pressed out of the potatoe, must be mixed
with
an
equal
quantity of
deposit a fine sediment,
water, and in an hour' s time
which may be used as starch.
it will
�5
Relay Custis Lewis' s Housekeeping Book
edited by Patricia Brady Smith, New Orleans: Historic New Orleans
Collection, 1982
TX 153 . L65 1982
COLL
HIST INT
Marquart,
John
Six Hundred Receipts, worth their weight in gold.... (
edition),
Paducah Ky.: Collector Books, n. d.
641. 55 M357
Roberts,
facsimile of
1867
Robert
The House Servant' s Directory. (
facsimile of 1827 edition),
Mass.:
647. 2
Waltham,
The Gore Place Society, 1977.
R647
Bryan,
Lettice
The Kentucky Housewife. (
reprint
of
1839 edition),
Paducah,
Ky.:
Collector Books, 1970.
TX715 . B915 1970
Plat,
Sir Hugh
Delightes for Ladies. (
COLL DA 110 . P42
reprint
of
edition),
London:
Lockwood,
1948.
A Colonial Plantation Cookbook: The Receipt Book of Harriott Pinckney
Horry,
1770
edited by Richard Hooker,
Press,
Columbia, S. C.:
University of South Carolina
1984.
TX703 . H67 1984
CRAFT
COLL
On the Score of Hospitality: Selected Receipts of a VanRensselaer Family,
Albany, New York, 1785 - 1835
edited by Jane Carpenter Kellar, Ellen Miller, Paul Stambach.
Albany, N. Y.: Historic Cherry Hill, 1986.
TX703 .
Grant,
05
1986
Elizabeth ( Raper)
The Receipt Book of Elizabeth Raper and a Portion of her Cipher Journal.
Nonesuch Press, 1924.
edited by Bartle Grant.
Soho ( Eng.):
TX705 . G72
Warren,
COLL
Jane
Sweet Home"
Cook Book. (
Collector Books,
641. 55 W289
facsimile of undated edition),
Paducah, Ky.:
n. d.
Martha Washington' s Hooke of Cookery.
edited by Karen Hess, New York: Columbia Universtiy Press, 1981.
TX705 . M368
Smith,
COLL CRAFT
Eliza
The Compleat Housewife,
reprint of
House Pub.,
or, Accomplished Gentlewoman' s Companion.
1758 edition),
1983.
TX705 . S53 1983
CRAFT
King' s Langley, Herts.,
Eng.:
Arlon
�6
August
1,
TO:
All HAPO Supervisors and Interpreters
FROM:
Conny Graft
SUBJECT:
1989
Evaluation of' Ouestions and Answers
The publication Ouestions and Answers was created in
August 1980, for the purpose of answering historical questions that
interpreters'
receive
from visitors
and are unable to answer.
Interpreters have been invited to send or call in their questions
to Jane Strauss, the editor,
and she has been responsible for
finding the answers and publishing an issue six times a year.
Over the past few years, arises,Strauss has received very
Jane "
The question now
few questions.
Is the time and effort
Are interpreter' s
spent on Questions and Answers worthwhile ?" "
aware that they have a place to send their questions ?" "
anyone read the issues when they arrive ?" "
useful ?"
Is
the
Does
information
I would like to hear your candid assessment of Ouestions
and Answers along with your suggestions for the future.
Please
take a minute to fill out the form on the back of this sheet and
return it to Conny Graft at the Davidson Shop through interoffice
mail.
eon nc{
Conny Graft
�SURVEY FOR OUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Date:
1)
Department:
Were you aware of the purpose of Ouestions and Answers and
how it worked?
YES
2)
NO
Do you find the information in this publication useful?
YES
NO
3)
If
4)
Please check the statement below that best reflects your
so
how?
If not, why not?
opinion.
I would like to see this publication continued.
I do not want to see this publication continued.
I would like to see it continued with some changes.
I would like to suggest the following changes:
5)
Do you have any other comments you would like to make
regarding Questions and Answers?
RETURN TO CONNY GRAFT,
DAVIDSON SHOP
DIE
8/ 89
�Questions
Vol.
10,
Answers
5
No.
October
1989
This issue of Questions and Answers addresses the
Kris Dippre,
use of cosmetics in the eighteenth century.
Pasteur &
Galt
Apothecary,
supplied
frequently asked questions about
1.
the
this
answers
to
the most
subject.
Did Women Wear Cosmetics in the Eighteenth Century?
First
of
all,
Cosmetic
is
according
complete
The
derived
to
considered
let' s
define
from
an
word "
the word "
dictionaries
as
the
orderly
is " the
cosmetics."
cosmos,"
world
system . . .
or
which
universe
any harmonious
and
system."
Greeks
used
the word " kosmetikos,"
which
meant "
skill
in decorating."
With
these
thoughts
in mind,
the
eighteenth century was
EightenCentury
indeed interested in perfecting what was not already
perfected,
that is,
not
always
in harmony.
Horace Walpole is quoted as saying, " The characteristics
of the Age are frenzy, folly, extravagance and
insensibility."
Yes,
women - -
eighteenth
The "
and
Macaroni
England
for
sometimes
century,
Club,"
men - - wore
sometimes
for
very
example,
cosmetics
in
the
noticeably.
was
established
in
those young gentlemen who had traveled abroad
and had returned home,
bringing with them the " worldly"
knowledge of the latest in fashion and hygiene.
They not
only worshiped the finest in fabrics and tailored cuts
but apparently painted their faces with a bit of color
and doused themselves with the latest in colognes.
2.
What
Were Cosmetics
Made
From?
Animal,
vegetable,
Everything.
are still made that way today.
Clays
like
kaolin,
and
commonly known
as
mineral.
fuller' s
Cosmetics
earth,
were
used in the eighteenth century and are still used in the
twentieth century in skin masks for drying oils.
A Bi- Monthly Publication of the Department of Interpretive Education
Cosmetic
�Animal fats and oils such as tallow and lanolin were used.
still used in ointments and creams.
They are
J
Some
of the
same minerals,
to tint and color makeup,
from the
cochineal
animals,
and
chemicals
are
still
insect to
create
the
color red.
Carmine
also be produced from brazilwood ( Caesalpinia echinata),
used
tropical
tree
Garcinia
gamboge (
produces
an
used
including carmine, which can be produced
bark
found
in
a
hanburyi),
orange- red yellow
fabric
gum
color
and
tree
and
was
also
often
dyes.
leather
resin
Gum
from
a
can
an
Cambodia,
popular
rouge.
It is a color used on canvas in oil painting today.
Other plants gums like tragacanth and arabic ( Mucilago Tragacanthe
and Arabaca respectively) are resins from Middle Eastern plants
that are still found in cosmetics such as hair gels and are even
used in foods today as thickeners.
3.
Some of the Ingredients Used in Cosmetics Were Apparently Not Very
Safe.
For
example,
Is
It
True
That
Women
Would
Swallow
Small
Amounts of Arsenic to Clear the Complexion?
I have searched and am still searching through primary documents
and
cannot
find
one
reference
that
includes
arsenic
as
ingredient internally or externally for cosmetic purposes.
an
The
thought of arsenic as an additive in order to whiten or clear the
skin
is
perhaps
investigation
a
twentieth -century
before
officially
idea
being
and
needs
further
incorporated
in
interpretations.
in
an
medical
arsenic
eighteenth- century
looking
up
dictionary, it' s hard to imagine where the clearing concept was
1771
derived
from.
In quoting the Encyclopedia Britannica,
When
edition,
don' t
arsenic is " the most volatile of all the semi -metals" (
light
a
match).
when
Also,
extracted
from
cobalt
so
arsenic
is a white powder.
It can also be red or yellow depending on the
amount of sulphur added to it.
And even if it starts as a white
using
powder,
it
externally
or
internally
will
give
you
the
following results:
According to the 1955 U.
S.
Dispensatory: "
All
the
preparations
of arsenic are exceedingly poisonous to both man and the lower
The specific symptoms of arsenicalism, the drug may give
animals.
rise to alterations of the skin,
the most important of these are
particular dryness and a tendency to the overgrowth of ' Keratin
proteins)
as shown by the formation of warts, ridges on the
finger
the
nails
internal
measles
of
coarseness
use
attended
inflammation
produced,
of
of
as
of
the
hair . . .
arsenic
causes
in
affection
mucous
that
membranes).
a
rash
with
In some instances
not unlike that of
catarrhal
Sometimes
and occasionally the hair and nails fall off."
They were award of this in the eighteenth century.
symptoms
salivation
is
�1794:
Quoting the Edinburgh New Dispensatory,
The pure white arsenic has a penetrating corrosive
taste; and taken into the body to the extent even of
only a few grains,
proves a most violent poison."
The book continues, recommending arsenic in tiny doses for " Fever,
periodic
headachs . ."
even as an application for " cancerous
is arsenic recommended for cosmetics, and
side effects, one can probably understand
But nowhere
because of its obvious
tumours."
why.
4.
Did Some Cosmetics Really Contain Lead?
I
Yes,
can find several
carbonate
which
is
of
lead,
Latin
Apothecaries
either
by
recipes of cosmetics containing lead or
often
referred
for " white
often
made
importing
it
on
preparing
dispensatories.
this
the
the
to
as "
ceruse"
or "
Cerussa,"
lead."
product
finished
site
with
available
product
the
in
from
aid
of
their
shops,
Europe
one
or
of
by
many
White lead was considered a base for holding color, just like lead
was used
could be
as a base
spread on
for
the
house and wall paints
face as a foundation,
added to use as rouge and lip color.
and Paint by Neville Williams ( 1957):
for years.
So
or color could
it
be
Quoting one source, Powder
Once coloring was added,
"
ceruse became paint and paint it was nearly always called."
Sir Robert Moray is given credit for its invention.
audience in a lecture
I)
cast
pigs
of
in
clean,
1661 how he had made
soft
into
lead,
He
told
an
ceruse:
thin
plates
and
then
Each plate was put into a pot, being prevented from
Vinegar was added " to effect
touching the bottom of it by a bar.
rolled them.
the conversion.
The pots were separately covered with lead plates
and stacked and boarded up in a bed of fresh horse droppings and
left for three weeks digestion.
The plates
as from inside each pot were then unrolled,
from the top as well
beaten
the
with
battledores ( flat
paddles)
till
laid
on
a
flakes
board
came
and
off.
These flakes were then ground in a mill to a very fine powder;
water was added and the mixture was left to dry in the sun until
it
was
hard.
appropriate
The
coloring
resulting
and
ceruse
perfume."
was
Sir
then
Robert
ready
also
for
the
noted
the
possible accidents to the work -men during these processes.
These
included " Contorsion of the stomach, constipation, shortness of
dizziness,
great pains in the brows and even blindness,
breath,
all caused by noxious fumes from the lead."
A much
safer and much more expensive base for rouges and creams
was " bear' s grease " -- literally the fat of the animal melted down.
5.
How
Were
Colors
Produced?
�Many home guides on every topic including producing one' s own
cosmetics were written in the eighteenth century.
best way to illustrate colors is to list some of
recipes
found
in
one
of
the
most
popular
Flora,
published
at Fleet Street
and
London,
1784.
Colonial Williamsburg' s
guides,
St.
I
think
the
the
Paul' s
the
actual
Toile
Church
de
Yard,
Boundary Street Research
Library has an original copy:
A
Rouge
for
the
Face
Alkanet Root strikes a beautiful red when mixed with Oils or
Pomatums.
A
scarlet
or
gives
Rose - colored
the
Ribband
if
cheeks,
wetted
rubbed
with
with
it,
a
water or brandy,
beautiful bloom that can hardly be distinguished from the
natural
color.
Others only use a Red Sponge, which tinges
the
cheeks
of
a
fine
carnation
color."
Another
Take Brazil Wood Shavings,
and Roch Alum,
beat them together
in a coarse powder, and boil in a sufficient quantity of Red
Wine,
till two thirds of the Liquor are consumed.
decoction
with
6.
a
had
bit
of
stood
till
cold,
rub
a
little
When this
on
the
cheeks
cotton."
What Was a Beauty Patch and What Was the Purpose Behind Wearing
One?
Patching
the
sixteenth
face,
century,
a
fashion just beginning
reached
fantastic
at
the end of the
proportions
in
the
later
seventeenth century and persisted to the eighteenth.
Patches were usually cut from black taffeta or from very thin
Spanish leather, generally red.
They were always perfumed. Gummed
paper was used for economy' s sake.
Favorite shapes
included stars,
were
either
placed
on
several
were worn
Gummed
paper
benzoin,
at
one
patches
mastic,
side
of
crescents,
the
face
and diamonds.
and
forehead.
Patches
Sometimes
time.
were
or arabic,
gummed
with
plant
resins
such
as
which were sold by apothecaries.
Another way to adhere patches to the skin was simply to wet and
reapply them.
Samuel
Pepys
Castlemaine
as
recorded
he
sat
a
near
wonderful
her
at
the
description
theater
one
of
a
night.
Lady
He
noticed her " call to one of her attendants for a little patch off
her face,
and put it into her own mouth and wetted it, and so
clapped it upon her own by the side of her mouth."
he continued, "
she feeling a pimple rising there."
I
suppose,"
�before
Apparently,
long
yet
another
use
for
this
practice
was
found.
In the early eighteenth century during the great battles
between
the
rival
political
parties
in Queen
Anne' s
reign,
many
women wore patches as party favors.
Whig ladies patched the right
side, Tories the left.
For the politically unbiased, both cheeks
could
be
patched
at
once.
Remember,
Patches were also worn to covering scarring.
an
illness
famous
for literally
leaving its mark,
smallpox,
was
a
major
concern. Smallpox left marks on the face more than anywhere else
Patches
because of the virus' s affect on the sebaceous glands.
could cover these pits in a decorative way.
7.
Were
In
There
a
Recipes
sense,
for
Corrective
Makeups?
Smallpox seemed to be the big threat of the
eighteenth century, and several recipes can be found for healing
For example:
and hiding the scars it caused.
yes.
Quoting the Toile de Flora):
A
cosmetic
water,
of
great
to
use,
prevent
pits
after
the
Smallpox:
Dissolve an ounce and a half of Salt in a pint of Mint -Water;
them together , arcl ti2o 'Cue \ t
st . `%\ ts \s a verb
useful Wash for the face after the Small pox, in order to
boil
clear
away
the
allay
scabs,
the
itching,
and
remove
the
redness."
Smallpox wasn' t the only concern,
To
remove
Houseleek,
and
Celandine,
distill it in a sand heat,
To
course.
For
example:
Freckles:
Take
of
remove Worms
of
each
an
equal
quantity;
and wash with the distilled Water.
in the Face:
Make use of the distilled Waters of the Whites of Eggs,
Flowers,
Water Lilies,
Solomon' s
either
Seal,
mixed
White
together,
White Lilies,
Roses,
or
of
Melon Seeds,
Crumb
separately,
of
with
Wheaten
the
Bean
Iris Roots,
Bread,
addition
of
the White of a new -laid Egg.
A Remedy for St.
Antony' s Fire or Erysipelatous Eruptions on the
Face.
Take
Narcissus
ounce;
Roots,
an
ounce;
fresh
Nettle- seeds,
half
an
beat them together into a soft paste with a sufficient
quantity of White Wine Vinegar, and anoint the eruptions
therewith every night; or, bathe the part affected with the
Juice
of
Cresses."
�All
8.
from Toila
da
Flora,
1784)
Was the Complete Look Comparable to Today' s Look?
Let me describe
it, and I' ll
let you decide.
Starting at the top, it seems that hair styles, whether a person' s
own or a wig,
were generally worn with some height above the
forehead, whether with bangs or not.
The forehead was preferably
exposed, to allow more expression to the eves.
The eves were not
usually accentuated with shadows or mascaras ( mascara is more
recent) but the expressive accent was on the eyebrows.
Eyebrows,
I have
even when wearing a white wig, were dark and very arched.
Virginia gentlemen prized
found recipes for darkening the brows.
this feature on a woman, according to Philip Vickers Fithian, an
and thought it odd if a
cut them.
References to
eighteenth -century tutor at Nomini Hall,
woman
tried
to
lighten
the
mouseskin eyebrows have been
brows
or
found
Literally made of mouse skin,
including the fir, these appliances could be added over one' s own
brows with a little gum resin adhesive,
The
face
pearl
itself
be
brushed with
a
little
rice
powder
or
literally), the latter giving the face a bit of a
Brushes"
could be a soft rag or a piece of cotton.
powder (
luster. "
The
could
or with one' s own spittle.
cheeks,
special
as
mentioned
and
occasions,
before,
this
known for their natural look,
Englishwomen
the
by
Italianate"
were
included
rouged,
especially for
Englishwomen.
Originally
once Italian styles traveled abroad,
mid - eighteenth
to
according
traveler' s
one
looked "
century
very
observations,
and
when stepping out for an evening, were apparently
Rouge
was
not
not to be outdone by their city sisters.
necessarily blended to look natural, beauty patches were put in
countrywomen,
place,
and the " crayons" (
lipstick is a twentieth -century phrase)
were dabbed on liberally.
Last,
but by no means least, if the lady was missing a few
necessary items, such as teeth, dentures of many substances,
including porcelain, could be bought, and so could a pair of
plumpers,"
mouth
on
round balls
both
sides
of cork cut
between
the
in half and
cheeks
and
slid
gums
inside the
to
create
a
healthy look by filling out the sunken cheeks.
The suntan was not popular yet, and many recipes for " washing out
a
tan"
have
been
fact, to some,
head with
a
found ( none
of
which
I
think
would
tanned skin meant " working class,"
wide -brimmed hat was often
done.
work).
In
and covering the
Fithian noted that
local Virginia women placed scarves over their heads and tied them
under
their
chins (
like
the
1960s
movie
star
look),
perhaps
to
protect the skin from the harsh elements of the sun and the sandy,
dusty streets.
His original thought when first arriving in the
colony and seeing this
Virginia
women "
fashion was that an incredible number of
suffered
from the Toothache!"
K
�as
judge.
So,
far
as
a
comparative
look,
I' ll
let
the
reader
be
the
The subject has proven to be fascinating.
For further reading,
have derived my quotes:
I suggest the following books,
Powder and Paint, Neville Williams,
The
The
Artificial
Toila
De
Face,
Fenja
Flora,
Gunn,
London,
from which
I
1957 ( Historic Trades Library)
1973 (
1784 (
Collections Library)
Boundary
Street
Research
Library) Rare Section
The Diary of Philip Vickers Fithian, edited by Hunter Dickinson
Farish,
1957 ( All Colonial Williamsburg libraries)
The
Secrets
of
Arts
and
Trades,
London,
1784 (
Historic
Trades
Library)
Encyclopedia Britannica,
Vol.
I,
Edinburgh,
1771 ( Historic Trades
Library)
The
Edinburgh
New
Apothecary Library)
Dispensatory,
London,
1794 (
Pasteur &
Galt
�This is the final issue of Questions and Answers.
We
want to thank our readers who responded to the survey, as well as
sharing their ideas and suggestions as to how we can be more
successful
in gathering and distributing this information to
Out of 400 potential surveys only 36 were
interpreters.
returned.
This suggests
publication
that
the need and
interest
in the
has waned.
The Interpreter Planning Board will incorporate a
Questions and Answers section in future issues of The Interpreter
when
arises.
If you have a question that you would
addressed, please contact your departmental
representative.
Representatives are: -
Th
the
like
to
need
see
Company of Colonial
Performers
Kristi
Everly
Department
Afro
American Interpretation &
Presentations
Historic
Trades
Historical
Department
Interpretation
Department of Visitor Aides
Rosemarie
Byrd
Marcus
Department
Hansen
Brenda
LeClair
Jodi
Norman
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter
Description
An account of the resource
<p><em>The Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter</em> was a newsletter published July 1980-September 2009 by the education and research departments of Colonial Williamsburg and authored mainly by staff researchers and interpreters. Its purpose was to disseminate information germane to the current interpretive focus of the Historic Area uniformly across the various departments involved with historical interpretation. Some of the articles sprang from the need to impart new research or interpretive information to staff while others were inspired by employee questions or suggestions. In the earlier issues, standard sections include “The King’s English” which explained various words or terminology encountered in 18th century life, “Occurrences” which noted different programs and events of interest to employees and visitors, and “The Exchange” which was a guest column that offered the perspective and knowledge of non-research department employees on various subjects. Later issues had regular columns about historical subjects, archaeology, gardening, new books at the Foundation library, “Cook’s Corner” about foodways, “Interpreter’s Corner” concerning issues of interpretation, and a Q & A section. The number of issues published per year varied as did the length of the newsletter.</p>
<p>Several supplemental publications sprang from the Interpreter including <em>Fresh Advices, Questions & Answers</em>, and A<em> Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em>. Fresh Advices offered discussions of recent research conducted by the Foundation and opportunities for applying it in the Historic Area. It was published infrequently from 1981-1987. <em>Questions & Answers</em> began and ended as a column in the <em>Interpreter</em>, but also existed as a supplemental publication from 1980-1989. It functioned as a means to answer common interpreter questions to the research department about eighteenth-century history and culture, Williamsburg area history, and Colonial Williamsburg itself. The one-time 1990 publication <em>A Cultural Time Line & Glossary for Williamsburg in the Eighteenth Century</em> consisted of a oversize poster-sized timeline and a glossary booklet. The time line included notable events in the Age of Enlightenment in the categories of politics, philosophy and religion, education, science and technology, fine arts and architecture, and performing arts and literature. The glossary was an expansion on selected entries from the time line to give more information on people and events that directly or indirectly influenced the development of colonial Virginia society.</p>
<p>An index to the <em>Interpreter</em> and its supplemental publications may be found here: <a href="http://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/library/_files/Interpreter.pdf">Colonial Williamsburg Interpreter Index, 1980-2009</a>.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Questions & answers : a bi-monthly publication of the Department of Interpretive Education, volume 10, 1989